Introduction to Humans in Engineered Systems -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- Part I: Historical Perspective -- References -- 1: Natural and Engineered Systems -- Purposeful Design -- User-Centered Design -- Design Against Failure -- Summary -- References -- 2: Historical Roots -- Engineering for Physical Limitations -- Size -- Strength -- Speed and Efficiency -- Engineering for Human Cognition -- Writing -- Number Systems -- Point-and-Click Interfaces -- The Modern Era -- Aviation -- The Digital Computer -- A Fractured Field -- Human Factors/Ergonomics -- Human-Computer Interaction -- Human-Systems Integration -- Summary -- References -- 3: The Current Practice -- Aerospace -- The Human-System Specialist in Aerospace -- Medicine -- The Human-System Specialist in Medicine -- Automotive Industry -- The Human-System Specialist in the Automotive Industry -- Computer Industry -- The Human-System Specialist in Human-Computer Interfaces -- Summary -- References -- Part II: The Environment -- References -- 4: The Varied Nature of Environments -- Static vs. Dynamic Domains -- Sources of Difficulty in Static Environments -- Modes -- Comprehension -- Sources of Difficulty in Dynamic Environments -- Lag -- Plant Dynamics -- Control Order -- Perturbation and Noise -- Internal vs. External Pacing -- Error Tolerance -- Summary -- References -- 5: The Social Context -- Methodological Consequences of Group Size -- Length/Variability of Response Times -- Methods of Study and Analysis -- Communication and Coordination Consequences of Group Size -- Summary -- References -- 6: Analysis Techniques -- Modeling Static Environments: Finite State Representations -- Modeling Dynamic Environments -- Control Theory -- Signal Detection Theory -- Task Analysis -- Measuring Complexity Using Information Theory -- Modeling Throughput Using Queuing Theory -- Summary.

References -- Part III: The Human Element -- References -- 7: Determinants of Human Behavior -- The Human Factor -- Structure and Content -- Levels of Analysis -- Summary -- References -- 8: The Structure of Human Information Processing -- Processing Stages -- Cognition and Action -- Cognition and Goal-Directed Behavior -- Response Selection -- The Hick-Hyman Law -- Compatibility -- The Nature of Capacity Limitations -- Summary -- References -- 9: Acquiring Information -- Sensory Processing -- Vision -- Illumination -- Reflectance of the Surface -- Reflectance of Surrounding Surfaces -- Anatomy of the Eye -- Visual Acuity -- Acuity and Retinal Eccentricity -- Adaptation -- Saccadic Eye Movements -- Temporal Vision -- Masking and Crowding -- The What and Where of Vision -- Summary -- Color Vision -- CIE Color Space -- The Uses of Color -- Audition -- The Human Auditory System -- Auditory Perception -- Pitch, Masking, and Critical Bands -- Auditory Localization -- Auditory-Visual Cross-Modal Interactions -- Sensory Processing Summary -- Attention -- Selective Attention -- The Cocktail Party Phenomenon and Echoic Memory -- Iconic Memory in Vision -- Resource and Data Limits -- The Capacity of Attention -- The Processing of Unattended Items -- Controlling Attention -- Visual Search -- Visual Monitoring -- Information Foraging Theory -- Summary -- References -- 10: Central Processing Limitations on Multitasking -- Bottleneck Theories -- Central Bottleneck Theory -- The Psychological Refractory Period Paradigm -- Central Bottleneck Theory and Driving -- Central Bottleneck Theory and Human-Computer Interaction -- Fitts' Law -- Project Ernestine -- Capacity Theories -- Complexity in Resource Allocation -- Allocation of Limited-Capacity Resources -- Multiple Resource Theory -- Using Multiple Resource Theory.

Applications of Single-Channel and Multiple Resource Theories -- Timesharing -- Task-Switching Costs -- Cognitive Operations in Task Switching -- Timesharing Strategies and the Control of Processing -- Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off -- Optimal Strategies -- Summary -- References -- 11: Memory -- Types of Memories -- Short-Term Memory -- Working Memory -- Long-Term Memory -- Episodic versus Semantic Memory -- Retaining and Forgetting Information -- Interference -- Forgetting to Remember to Remember: Prospective Memory -- Retrieving Information -- Short-Term Memory Retrieval -- Long-Term Memory Retrieval -- Summary -- References -- 12: Decision Making -- Anatomy of a Decision -- Normative Approaches to Decision Making -- Rational Decisions -- Bayes Theorem -- Utility and Expected Value -- Nonoptimality of Human Decisions -- Failure to Consider Base Rate Information -- Judging Numerical Quantities -- Failure to Appreciate Statistical Properties -- Cognitive Approaches to Decision Making -- Confirmation Bias -- Framing Effects -- Overconfidence -- Heuristics in Human Decisions -- Availability -- Representativeness -- Anchoring -- The Use of Heuristics -- Other Influences on Decision Making -- Process Models of Human Decision Making -- Naturalistic Decision Making -- Relationship between Decision-Making Models and Systems Engineering -- Summary -- References -- Part IV: Human-System Integration -- References -- 13: A Case Study in Human-System Performance: The Exxon Valdez -- An Account of the Grounding of the Tankship Exxon Valdez -- The Nature of the Error -- Mode Errors -- Control Dynamics and Detection Times -- Time Estimation -- Decision Biases -- Multitasking -- Summary -- References -- 14: Human Error -- Human Error and System Error -- The Nature of Human Error -- Theories of Human Error -- Error Types -- Error Forms -- Situation Awareness.

Situation Awareness in Individuals -- Situation Awareness of Teams -- Cognitive Processing in Establishing Situation Awareness -- Measuring Situation Awareness -- Inferring Situation Awareness from Eye Fixation Patterns -- Summary of Situation Awareness -- Summary -- References -- 15: Contextual Factors Affecting Human-System Performance -- Workload -- Defining and Measuring Workload -- Performance-Based Metrics -- Cognitive Task Analysis -- Physiological Indices of Workload -- Subjective Ratings of Workload -- Workload Summary -- Interruption -- Operator State -- Fatigue -- Sleep Deprivation and Circadian Rhythms -- Summary -- References -- 16: The Role of Automation in Human-System Performance -- Using Automated Devices -- Levels of Automation -- A Taxonomy of Automation Levels -- Automation as a Decision Support Aid -- Automation and System Safety -- Summary -- References -- 17: Supporting Human-System Performance -- Alarms and Alerts -- Sensory Characteristics of Good Alerts and Alarms -- Design Considerations in Alerts and Alarms -- Human Factors Issues with Alerts and Alarms -- Information Displays -- Transform Information to Take Advantage of Human Perceptual Systems -- Match Perceptual Cues to the Nature of the Judgment -- Choose Perceptual Depictions Compatible with Internal Representations -- Provide Feedback -- Use Presentation Techniques That Minimize Demand for Focal Visual Attention -- Use Perceptual Distinctions That Match Visual and Auditory Capabilities -- Apply the Proximity Compatibility Principle -- Create Barriers -- Summary -- References -- Index.