Nanobeam X-Ray Scattering -- Contents -- Foreword -- Preface -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 X-ray Interaction with Matter -- 1.1.1 Transmission of X-ray -- 1.1.2 Diffraction of X-rays -- 1.1.3 X-ray Elemental Sensitivity -- 1.2 Diffraction at Different Lengthscales and Real-Space Resolution -- 1.2.1 How to Produce an X-ray Nanobeam -- 1.2.2 Experiments with Nanobeams -- 1.2.3 Coherence Properties of Small Beams -- 1.2.4 Side Issues ? -- 1.3 Future Developments -- 2 X-ray Diffraction Principles -- 2.1 A Brief Introduction to Diffraction Theory -- 2.1.1 Interference of X-ray Waves -- 2.2 Kinematic X-ray Diffraction Theory -- 2.2.1 The Structure Factor -- 2.2.2 The Form Factor -- 2.2.3 Reciprocal Lattice of Nanostructures -- 2.2.4 The Phase Problem -- 2.3 Reflectivity -- 2.4 Properties of X-ray Beams -- 2.5 A Note on Coherence -- 2.5.1 Longitudinal Coherence and Wavelength Distribution -- 2.5.2 Longitudinal Coherence Length -- 2.5.3 Transverse Coherence and Thermal Sources -- 2.5.4 Transverse Coherence Length -- 2.6 X-ray Sources -- 2.7 Diffraction Measurement: How to Access q in a Real Experiment -- 2.7.1 Diffraction Geometries -- 2.7.2 Lengthscales -- 3 X-ray Focusing Elements Characterization -- 3.1 Introduction and Context -- 3.2 Refractive X-ray Lenses -- 3.2.1 Characterization of Focusing Elements -- 3.2.2 Spherical Refractive X-ray Lenses -- 3.2.3 Parabolic Compound Refractive Lenses (CRL) -- 3.2.4 Kinoform Lenses -- 3.2.5 Characteristics of the Refractive Lenses -- 3.3 X-ray Mirrors. Reflection of X-rays at Surfaces -- 3.3.1 Reflective X-ray Optics (Kirkpatrick-Baez Mirrors) -- 3.3.2 Capillaries -- 3.3.3 Waveguides (Resonators) -- 3.3.4 Other Reflective Optical Elements -- 3.4 Diffractive X-ray Optics -- 3.4.1 Fresnel Zone Plates -- 3.4.2 Hologram of a Point Object -- 3.4.3 Quantities Characterizing a Binary Zone Plate.

3.4.4 Multilevel Zone Plate -- 3.4.5 Getting a Clean and Intense Focused Beam with ZPs -- 3.4.6 Bragg-Fresnel Lenses -- 3.4.7 Multilayer Laue Lenses -- 3.4.8 Photon Sieves -- 3.4.9 Beam Compressors -- 3.5 Other X-ray Optics -- 3.6 Measuring the Size of the X-ray Focused Spot -- 3.7 Conclusion -- 4 Scattering Experiments Using Nanobeams -- 4.1 From the Ensemble Average Approach towards the Single Nanostructure Study -- 4.1.1 A Motivation for the Use of Small X-ray Beams -- 4.1.2 Required Focused Beam Properties -- 4.2 Scanning X-ray Diffraction Microscopy -- 4.3 Finite Element Based Analysis of Diffraction Data -- 4.4 Single Structure Inside a Device -- 4.5 Examples from Biology -- 4.6 Recent Experiments: The Current Limits -- 4.6.1 Strain Distribution in Nanoscale Ridges -- 4.6.2 Between Single Structure and Ensemble Average -- 4.7 Outlook -- 4.7.1 Experimental Developments -- 5 Nanobeam Diffraction Setups -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Typical X-ray Diffraction Setup -- 5.3 Nanodiffraction Setup Requirements -- 5.3.1 Diffractometer -- 5.3.2 Restriction of Setup -- 5.3.3 Stability: How to Keep the Beam on the Sample -- 5.3.4 Beating Drifts: More Solutions -- 5.4 Nanobeam and Coherence Setup -- 5.5 Detectors: Pixel and Time Resolution, Dynamical Range -- 5.6 Some Intrinsic Issues -- 5.6.1 Angular Divergence -- 5.6.2 Beam Damage -- 5.7 Sample Environment: Specific Solutions for Nanobeams? -- 6 Spectroscopic Techniques Using Focused Beams -- 6.1 Introduction and Context -- 6.1.1 Requirements of Spectroscopy Compared to Diffraction -- 6.2 Scanning X-ray Microscopy with Various Contrasts -- 6.2.1 Very Specific Contrast Signals -- 6.3 Soft X-rays Used for Imaging with Magnetic Contrast -- 7 Coherent Diffraction: From Phase Sensitivity to Phase Retrieval -- 7.1 Matter in the Light of Coherent X-rays -- 7.1.1 Coherent versus Incoherent Illumination.

7.1.2 Formalism -- 7.1.3 Typical Coherent Nanofocusing Setup -- 7.1.4 Data Acquisition: From Fourier Space to Direct Space -- 7.2 Exploiting the Phase Sensitivity: Statistical Investigation of Defects in Matter -- 7.3 Encoding the Phase Directly: The Holographic Approach -- 7.3.1 Inline Holography -- 7.3.2 Off-axis Holography -- 7.3.3 Fourier Transform Holography -- 7.4 Support-based Phase Retrieval Coherent Diffraction Imaging -- 7.4.1 Principles -- 7.4.2 Phase Retrieval Algorithms -- 7.4.3 Imaging the Morphology of Nanomaterials -- 7.4.4 Imaging Strain in Nanocrystals -- 7.5 Fresnel Coherent Diffraction Imaging -- 7.6 Ptychography -- 8 Lensless Microscopy Imaging: Context and Limits -- 8.1 Resolution and Sensitivity -- 8.2 Experimental Design -- 8.2.1 Coherence and Flux -- 8.2.2 Sample Environment -- 8.2.3 Stability: Beam, Mechanics -- 8.3 How to Model: Defining the Physics Scheme -- 8.3.1 Illumination Wavefield -- 8.3.2 The Kinematics Approximation -- 8.3.3 Refraction Effects -- 8.3.4 Fresnel versus Far-field Regime -- 8.4 Phase Retrieval Strategies -- 9 Future Developments -- 9.1 Nanobeams: Hopes and Doubts -- 9.1.1 Smaller and Brighter Beams -- 9.1.2 Quality Control -- 9.1.3 Side Issues -- 9.2 Beamlines at Third-generation Synchrotron Sources -- 9.3 The Role of Free Electron Lasers -- 9.4 Conclusion -- Abbreviation list -- References -- Index.