Food Processing: Principles and Applications -- Copyright -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- 1 Principles of Food Processing -- 1.1 Processing of foods: an introduction -- 1.2 Unit operations in food processing -- 1.2.1 Heat transfer -- 1.2.2 Mass transfer -- 1.2.3 Fluid flow -- 1.2.4 Mixing -- 1.2.5 Size adjustment -- 1.2.6 Separation -- 1.3 Thermophysical properties, microbial aspects, and other considerations in food processing -- 1.3.1 Raw material handling -- 1.3.2 Cleaning and sanitation -- 1.3.3 Engineering properties of food, biological, and packaging material -- 1.3.4 Microbiological considerations -- 1.3.5 Role of acidity and water activity in food safety and quality -- 1.3.6 Reaction kinetics -- 1.4 Common food preservation/processing technologies -- 1.4.1 Goals of food processing -- 1.4.2 Processes using addition or removal of heat -- 1.4.3 Non-thermal food processing and preservation -- 1.4.4 Redefining pasteurization -- 1.5 Other food processing/preservation technologies -- 1.5.1 Fermentation -- 1.5.2 Extrusion -- 1.5.3 Baking -- 1.5.4 Hurdle technology -- 1.5.5 Packaging -- 1.6 Emerging issues and sustainability in food processing -- 1.7 Conclusion -- References -- 2 Thermal Principles and Kinetics -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Methods of thermal processing -- 2.2.1 Blanching -- 2.2.2 Pasteurization -- 2.2.3 Hot filling -- 2.2.4 Sterilization -- 2.3 Microorganisms -- 2.3.1 Factors affecting microbial growth -- 2.4 Thermal kinetics -- 2.4.1 Destruction of a microbial population -- 2.4.2 Destruction of quality attributes -- 2.4.3 Process optimization -- 2.5 Thermal process establishment -- 2.5.1 Temperature distribution test -- 2.5.2 Heat penetration test -- 2.6 Thermal process calculation -- 2.6.1 The general method -- 2.6.2 The formula method -- 2.6.3 The numerical methods -- 2.7 Thermal process validation.

2.7.1 Temperature measurement -- 2.7.2 Microbiological validation -- 2.7.3 Time-temperature integrators -- 2.8 Process monitoring and control -- 2.8.1 Critical factors in thermal processing -- 2.9 Emerging processing technologies -- 2.9.1 Ohmic heating -- 2.9.2 Microwave heating -- 2.10 Future trends -- References -- 3 Separation and Concentration Technologies in Food Processing -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Physical separation of food components -- 3.2.1 Filtration -- 3.2.2 Centrifugation (separators, clarifiers) -- 3.2.3 Pneumatic separation -- 3.2.4 Mechanical expression -- 3.3 Processes involving phase separation -- 3.3.1 Liquid-liquid -- 3.3.2 Liquid-gas -- 3.4 Membrane separations -- 3.4.1 Pressure-driven processes -- 3.4.2 Other membrane-based processes -- 3.5 Sustainability of separation technologies in food processing -- References -- 4 Dehydration -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Drying and food quality -- 4.2.1 Deterioration reactions in foods -- 4.3 Hot air drying -- 4.3.1 Product equilibrium -- 4.3.2 Moisture content definitions -- 4.3.3 Evaporation of water -- 4.3.4 Important psychrometric equations -- 4.3.5 Wet bulb temperature -- 4.4 Drying theory -- 4.4.1 Important moisture definitions -- 4.4.2 Vapor adsorption theories -- 4.4.3 Hysteresis -- 4.4.4 Theory of moisture movement within a product -- 4.4.5 The four drying rate periods -- 4.4.6 Representation of drying on a psychrometric chart -- 4.4.7 Models of the falling rate period -- 4.4.8 A complete drying model -- 4.4.9 Effect of airflow -- 4.5 Drying equipment -- 4.5.1 Batch dryers -- 4.5.2 Continuous dryers -- 4.6 Analysis of dryers -- 4.6.1 Moisture and heat balances -- 4.7 Sustainability -- 4.8 Conclusion -- References -- Further reading -- 5 Chilling and Freezing of Foods -- 5.1 Introduction to the food cold chain -- 5.2 Effect of refrigeration on food safety and quality.

5.2.1 Microbiology and food safety -- 5.2.2 Nutritional quality -- 5.2.3 Weight loss -- 5.2.4 Flavor -- 5.2.5 Texture -- 5.3 Blanching -- 5.4 Principles of refrigeration systems -- 5.4.1 Total loss refrigeration systems -- 5.4.2 Mechanical refrigeration systems -- 5.5 Heat transfer during chilling and freezing -- 5.5.1 Conduction -- 5.5.2 Convection -- 5.5.3 Radiation -- 5.5.4 Evaporation -- 5.6 Chilling and freezing systems -- 5.6.1 Air systems -- 5.6.2 Contact systems -- 5.6.3 Immersion/spray systems -- 5.6.4 Vacuum systems -- 5.6.5 Scraped surface freezers -- 5.6.6 High-pressure freezing systems -- 5.7 Chilled and frozen storage systems -- 5.8 Chilled and frozen transport systems -- 5.8.1 Sea transport -- 5.8.2 Air transport -- 5.8.3 Land transport -- 5.9 Refrigerated retail display systems -- 5.9.1 Unwrapped products -- 5.9.2 Wrapped products -- 5.9.3 Frozen foods -- 5.10 Recommended temperatures -- 5.11 Refrigeration and the environment -- 5.12 Specifying, designing, and commissioning refrigeration systems -- 5.13 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Fermentation and Enzyme Technologies in Food Processing -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Fermentation culture requirements -- 6.2.1 Culture media -- 6.2.2 Temperature -- 6.2.3 pH -- 6.2.4 Dissolved oxygen -- 6.2.5 Strain selection and strain development -- 6.3 Fermentation technologies -- 6.3.1 Batch fermentation -- 6.3.2 Fed-batch fermentation -- 6.3.3 Continuous fermentation -- 6.3.4 Immobilized cell fermentation -- 6.4 Downstream processing -- 6.4.1 Removal of insolubles -- 6.4.2 Cell disruption -- 6.4.3 Removal of solubles -- 6.4.4 Purification -- 6.5 Fermented foods -- 6.5.1 Fermented dairy products -- 6.5.2 Meat fermentation -- 6.5.3 Vegetable fermentation -- 6.5.4 Vinegar -- 6.5.5 Alcoholic beverages -- 6.5.6 Bread -- 6.5.7 Tempeh -- 6.6 Enzyme applications -- 6.6.1 Industrially important enzymes.

6.7 Sustainability -- 6.8 Concluding remarks and future trends -- References -- 7 Alternative Food Processing Technologies -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Alternative thermal processing technologies -- 7.2.1 Microwave heating -- 7.2.2 Radiofrequency heating -- 7.2.3 Infrared heating -- 7.2.4 Ohmic heating -- 7.2.5 Sous-vide processing -- 7.3 Alternative non-thermal processing technologies -- 7.3.1 High hydrostatic pressure processing -- 7.3.2 Irradiation -- 7.3.3 Ultraviolet light -- 7.3.4 Pulsed light -- 7.3.5 Pulsed electric field -- 7.3.6 Ultrasound (US) -- 7.4 Sustainability and energy efficiency of processing methods -- 7.4.1 Energy savings -- 7.4.2 Reduced gas, effluent emissions, and water savings -- 7.4.3 Generation of solid waste -- 7.5 Conclusion -- References -- 8 Nanotechnology for Food: Principles and Selected Applications -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Biosensing -- 8.2.1 Challenges of biosensing -- 8.2.2 Bioreceptors -- 8.2.3 Conventional biosensing methods -- 8.2.4 Nanomaterials-based biosensing -- 8.3 Packaging -- 8.3.1 Use of nanocomposites in food packaging film -- 8.3.2 Biodegradable nanocomposites -- 8.3.3 Antimicrobial packaging film -- 8.3.4 Nanostructured materials through self-assembled fibrils -- 8.4 Nanotechnology and sustainability -- 8.5 Summary -- References -- 9 Sustainability and Environmental Issues in Food Processing -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Sustainable food processing drivers -- 9.2.1 Legislative drivers -- 9.2.2 Economic drivers -- 9.2.3 Consumer drivers -- 9.2.4 Corporate performance -- 9.3 Environmental impact of food processing -- 9.3.1 Energy -- 9.3.2 Solid waste -- 9.3.3 Water and waste water -- 9.4 Green technologies: examples in the food processing industry -- 9.4.1 Separation and extraction technologies -- 9.4.2 Non-thermal processing -- 9.5 Environmental sustainability assessment methods.

9.5.1 Carbon footprint (CF) -- 9.5.2 Ecological footprint -- 9.5.3 Life cycle assessment -- 9.6 Conclusion -- References -- 10 Food Safety and Quality Assurance -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Elements of total quality management -- 10.3 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system -- 10.4 Sanitary processing conditions -- 10.4.1 Sanitary design and maintenance of plants and equipment -- 10.4.2 Cleaning and sanitation -- 10.4.3 Personnel practices -- 10.4.4 Transportation and storage -- 10.4.5 Control of physical contaminants -- 10.4.6 Pest control -- 10.4.7 Water quality -- 10.4.8 Allergens -- 10.4.9 Environmental testing -- 10.5 Supporting prerequisite programs -- 10.5.1 Supplier approval -- 10.5.2 Complaint management -- 10.5.3 Market withdrawal and recall plan -- 10.5.4 Traceability -- 10.6 Product quality assurance -- 10.7 Conclusion -- References -- 11 Food Packaging -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Functions of food packaging -- 11.2.1 Containment -- 11.2.2 Protection/preservation -- 11.2.3 Communication -- 11.2.4 Utility -- 11.3 Packaging systems -- 11.3.1 Primary packaging -- 11.3.2 Secondary packaging -- 11.3.3 Tertiary package -- 11.3.4 Unit load -- 11.3.5 Consumer/industrial packaging -- 11.4 Materials for food packaging -- 11.4.1 Plastics -- 11.4.2 Paper and paper-based materials -- 11.4.3 Metals -- 11.4.4 Glass -- 11.5 Other packaging types -- 11.5.1 Aseptic packaging -- 11.5.2 Modified atmosphere packaging -- 11.5.3 Active packaging in food processing -- 11.6 Sustainable food packaging -- 11.6.1 Recycling of food packaging -- 11.6.2 Biodegradable and compostable food packaging -- References -- 12 Food Laws and Regulations -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 The regulatory status of food ingredients and additives -- 12.3 Adulteration and misbranding -- 12.4 The global food trade: risk from adulterated and misbranded foods.

12.5 US Department of Agriculture programs.