Drinking Water and Health -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- REFERENCE -- I Executive Summary -- DISINFECTION -- Chemistry -- GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON -- II The Disinfection of Drinking Water -- ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY -- GENERAL ASPECTS OF DISINFECTION -- Raw Water Quality -- Disinfectant Demand -- Physical and Chemical Treatments -- Particulates and Aggregates -- The Importance of Residuals -- Application of the Disinfectant -- Microbiological Considerations -- Model Systems and Indicator Organisms -- Laboratory Cultures versus "Naturally Occurring" Organisms -- CHLORINE AND CHLORAMINES -- Chemistry of Chlorine in Water -- Chloramine Formation: Inorganic Chloramines -- Organic Chloramines -- Breakpoint Chlorination -- Analytical Methods and Their Evaluation -- Biocidal Activity -- Efficacy against Bacteria -- Free Chlorine (HOCl and OCl-) -- Monochloramine (NH2Cl) -- Dichloramine (NHCl2) -- Organic Chloramines -- Efficacy against Viruses -- Free Chlorine (HOCl and OCl-) -- Combined Chlorine (NH2Cl and NHCl2) -- Efficacy against Parasites -- Mechanism of Action -- Summary -- Research Recommendations -- OZONE -- Chemistry of Ozone in Water -- Production and Application of Ozone -- Analytical Methods -- Residual -- Biocidal Activity -- Efficacy against Bacteria -- Efficacy against Viruses -- Efficacy against Parasites -- Mechanism of Action -- Summary and Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- CHLORINE DIOXIDE -- The Chemistry of Chlorine Dioxide in Water -- Production and Application -- Analytical Methods -- Biocidal Activity -- Efficacy against Bacteria -- Efficacy against Viruses -- Efficacy against Parasites -- Comparative Biocidal Activity -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusion -- Research Recommendations -- IODINE -- Chemistry of Iodine in Water -- Production and Application -- Analytical Methods -- Biocidal Activity.

Efficacy against Bacteria -- Efficacy against Viruses -- Efficacy against Parasites -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- BROMINE -- Chemistry of Bromine in Water -- Production and Application -- Analytical Methods -- Biocidal Activity -- Efficacy against Bacteria -- Efficacy against Virus -- Efficacy against Parasites -- Mechanisms of Action -- Summary and Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- FERRATE -- The Chemistry of Ferrate in Water -- Preparation -- Analytical Methods and Residuals -- Biocidal Activity -- Efficacy against Bacteria -- Efficacy against Viruses -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusions -- HIGH PH CONDITIONS -- Attainment of Elevated pH -- Analytical Methods and Process Control -- Residual -- Biocidal Activity -- Efficacy against Bacteria -- Efficacy against Viruses -- Efficacy against Parasites -- Mechanisms of Action -- Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- HYDROGEN PEROXIDE -- Analytical Methods -- Production and Application -- Biocidal Activity -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- IONIZING RADIATION -- Application -- Analytical Methods and Residual -- Biocidal Activity -- Efficacy against Bacteria -- Efficacy against Viruses -- Efficacy against Parasites -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE -- Analytical Methods and Residual -- Production and Application -- Biocidal Activity -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- SILVER -- Production and Application -- Analytical Methods -- Biocidal Activity -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusions -- Research Recommendations -- ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT -- Dose -- Biocidal Dose -- Residual -- Biocidal Activity -- Mechanism of Action -- Conclusions -- SUMMARY -- Conclusions -- RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES.

III The Chemistry of Disinfectants in Water: Reactions and Products -- PRECURSOR COMPOUNDS AND THE HALOFORM REACTION -- The Haloform Reaction -- Humic Substances -- CHLORINE -- Properties of Aqueous Chlorine -- Reactive Forms of Chlorine in Water -- Reactions of Hypochlorous Acid with Organic Compounds -- Chlorine By-Products Found in Drinking Water and Selected Nonpotable Waters -- Trihalomethanes -- Nonhaloform Products of THM Reactions -- Reactions Involving Phenolic Substances -- Reaction Products from Chlorinated Surface Waters and Sewage Effluents -- Products from Chlorinated Surface Waters -- Products from Chlorinated Sewage Effluents -- Chlorination of Model Compounds -- Reactions Resulting in THM Formation -- Reactions Producing Compounds Other than THM's -- Inference of Possible Chlorination By-Products -- Inferences Regarding Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons -- Inferences Regarding Reactions with Biogenic Substances -- Inferences Regarding Trichloroacetaldehyde -- CHLORAMINES -- Properties of Chloramines -- Chloramine By-Products Found in Drinking Water and Selected Nonpotable Waters -- Chloramination of Model Compounds -- Inferences of Possible Chloramine Reaction By-Products -- BROMINE AND IODINE -- Properties of Bromine and Iodine -- Bromine and Iodine By-Products Found in Drinking Water or Selected Nonpotable Waters -- Experience with Drinking Water Supplies -- Laboratory Studies with Potable Waters -- Experience with Nonpotable Waters -- Bromination of Model Compounds -- Discussion and Conclusions -- CHLORINE DIOXIDE -- Properties of Aqueous Chlorine Dioxide -- Inorganic Reactants -- Chlorine Dioxide By-Products Found in Drinking Water and Selected Nonpotable Waters -- Chlorine Dioxide Reactions with Model Organic Compounds -- Discussion -- Research Recommendations -- OZONE -- Properties of Ozone.

Ozone By-Products Found in Drinking Water or Selected Nonpotable Waters -- Ozonization of Model Organic and Inorganic Compounds -- Reactions with Inorganic Compounds -- Inferences of Possible Ozone Reaction By-Products -- Epoxide Formation -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- IV An Evaluation of Activated Carbon for Drinking Water Treatment -- ACTIVATED CARBON-A DEFINITION -- THE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS -- GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- ADSORPTION EFFICIENCY OF GAC -- Removal of Selected Organic Compounds -- Percent Removals -- Adsorption Isotherms -- Equilibrium Models -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- EFFECTIVENESS OF PRETREATMENT FOR REMOVING SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS -- EFFECTIVENESS OF GAC AS A PRETREATMENT PROCESS FOR DISINFECTION -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- POWDERED ACTIVATED CARBON (PAC) -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- COMPETITION ON GAC -- Studies of Competitive Equilibrium Adsorption -- Laboratory Studies of Competition in GAC Beds -- Pilot Plant Studies of Competitive Adsorption -- Observations of Competitive Effects in Full-Scale Operation -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- MICROBIAL ACTIVITY ON GAC -- Interaction Between Microbial Activity and Adsorption -- Biodegradability of Organic Compounds -- Evidence of Microbial Action on GAC Beds in Water Treatment -- Effect of Pretreatment by Ozone and Chlorine on Microbial Action -- Preozonization in Water Treatment -- Effect of Ozone on Organics -- Effects of Prechlorination on Microbial Activity in GAC Beds -- Microbial Activity on GAC in Wastewater Treatment -- Microbial Contamination of Product Water -- Adherence of Microbes to GAC -- Bacterial Growth on GAC Beds -- The Effect of GAC Colonization on Microbial Content of the Effluent -- Speciation of Bacteria on Filter Beds and in Effluents.

Products of Microbiological Activity -- Microbiologically Produced Low-Molecular-Weight Toxicants -- High-Molecular-Weight Toxins-Endotoxins -- Absorption and Toxicity -- Measurement of Endotoxin -- Measurements of Endotoxin in Drinking Water -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- PRODUCTION OF NONBIOLOGICAL SUBSTANCES BY OR WITHIN THE GAC BED -- Carbon as a Catalytic Surface -- Organic Reactions Mediated by Carbon -- Reactions with Disinfectants -- Inorganic Reactions Mediated by Carbon -- Chemical Changes Mediated by Adsorbed Compounds -- Organic Reactions -- Inorganic Reactions -- Potential for Release of Catalytic Products -- Carbon Fines -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- REGENERATION OF GAC -- The Dependence of Surface Chemistry on Preparation -- Commercial Regeneration Procedures -- Influence of Regeneration on Adsorption -- Chemical Changes during Storage -- Leaching of Chemicals from GAC -- Pollution Control during Carbon Regeneration -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- ADSORPTION EFFICIENCY OF OTHER ADSORBENTS -- Resinous Adsorbents -- Stability -- Physical Degradation -- Chemical Degradation -- Removal of Humic Substances by Ion Exchange Resins -- Adsorption Isotherms and Column Studies -- Pilot Plant Studies -- Regeneration of Anion Exchange Resins -- Growth of Microorganisms on Ion Exchange Resins -- Nitrosamines and Ion Exchange Resins -- Adsorption Efficiency of Polymeric Adsorbents -- Percent Removal Data -- Adsorption Isotherms -- Column Studies-Small Scale -- Column Studies-Pilot Scale -- Competitive Adsorption Studies -- Regeneration of Polymeric Adsorbents -- Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations -- Anion Exchange Resins -- Polymeric Adsorbents -- ANALYTICAL METHODS TO MONITOR ADSORBENT UNIT PROCESSES IN WATER TREATMENT -- Monitoring Specific Pollutants of Potential Harm to Health.

Analyses of Individual Compounds with a Potential to Affect Health.