Cover -- Half-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Abbreviations -- PART I Introduction and systemic issues -- 1 The many faces of modern biotechnology -- A Introduction -- B Sustainable development, modern biotechnology and international tradeconflict and coordination -- 1 Environmental sustainability of modern biotechnology -- 2 Economic sustainability of modern biotechnology -- 3 Social sustainability of modern biotechnology -- C Biotechnology in a multilayered regulatory environment -- 2 Genetic engineering, trade and human rights -- A The focus on trade regulation -- B Underlying issues -- C Foundations -- 1 Core human rights relating to genetic engineering -- 2 Current WTO rules addressing genetic engineering -- 3 The absence of explicit reference to human rights in trade regulation -- D The ambiguity of human rights in genetic engineering -- E The implicit relationship of trade rules and human rights -- 1 Principles of interpretation -- 2 Portals of human rights concerns on biotechnology in WTO law -- (a) GATT Agreements -- (b) The GATS -- (c) The TRIPS Agreement -- F Sketching elements of future trade regulations for biotechnology -- 1 Market access regulation -- (a) Scientific risk assessment -- (b) Burden of proof -- (c) Risk management -- (d) The precautionary principle -- (e) Priniciple of consistency -- (f) Labelling requirements -- (g) Reference to morality? -- 2 Regulation of competition -- (a) Intellectual property -- (b) Anti-trust rules -- (c) Liability rules -- 3 Procedural guarantees -- 4 Coherence -- G Conclusion -- 3 Gender dimensions of biotechnology policy and trade -- A Introduction -- B Gendered aspects of biotechnology policy and trade -- 1 Agriculture -- 2 Traditional knowledge -- 3 Health care -- C Development of gender mainstreaming in international law and institutions.

D Conclusion: gender mainstreaming in biotechnology policy and trade -- PART II Intellectual property and gene technologyissues at stake and possible options -- 4 Biotechnology and patents: global standards, European approaches and national accents -- A Introduction -- B Global standards: the TRIPS Agreement -- 1 Microorganisms, plants and animals -- 2 Human genes -- 3 Ethics -- 4 Human rights -- 5 Traditional knowledge -- 6 Health -- C European approachesthe European Patent Convention and the EU Biotechnology Directive -- 1 The European Patent Convention -- 2 The EU Biotechnology Directive -- (a) Biological material and recombinant proteins -- (b) Microorganisms, plants and animals -- (c) The human body, gene sequences and stem cells -- (d) Ethics -- (e) Safeguarding human rights -- (f) Traditional knowledge -- (g) Health -- D National accents -- 1 Microorganisms, plants and animals -- 2 Human genes, gene sequences and stem cells -- 3 Ethics -- 4 Human rights -- 5 Traditional knowledge -- 6 Health -- E Conclusions -- 1 Plants and animals -- 2 Human genes and stem cells -- 3 Ethics -- 4 Human rights -- 5 Traditional knowledge -- 6 Health -- 5 Intellectual property rights, biotechnology and development: African perspectives -- 6 Traditional knowledge, biogenetic resources, genetic engineering and intellectual property rights -- A Introduction -- B The concept and nature of traditional knowledge -- C 'Exogenous' implications of patenting traditional knowledge -- D The significance of traditional knowledge and its protection under international law -- E Traditional knowledge and intellectual property rightsthe current debate -- F Protection of traditional knowledge and intellectual property rightswhat legal regime? -- G Content of an international regulatory framework -- H Conclusion.

PART III Food security, trade and agricultural production with genetically modified organisms -- 7 Biotechnology in the energy sector: some implications for developing countries -- A Introduction -- B From plants to chemicals and back to plants -- C Biotechnology in the energy sector -- D The trade and development implications -- E Conclusions -- 8 Coexistence and liability: implications for international trade drawn from the Swiss example -- A Coexistence as a general problem -- B Lessons from the Schmeiser v. Monsanto case -- C Addressing the specific problems of GMO -- D The nature of national policies on GMOs -- E The impact of national policies on trade -- F Conclusion -- 9 Food security and agricultural production with genetically modified organisms: a comment -- A What is at stake? -- B Some points to focus on -- 1 Trade regime v. trade regime litea clash of cultures -- 2 Towards a 'framework capable of reasonably balancing and weighing different' values -- 3 Get antitrust to work -- PART IV Food safety, international trade and biotechnology -- 10 Trade, environment and biotechnology: on coexistence and coherence -- A Introduction -- B The international regulation of biotechnology at the crossroads of trade and environment -- 1 The scope of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety -- 2 The relationship between the Cartagena Protocol and the WTO Agreementsthe terms of the debate -- 3 Which trade-restrictive measures could be defended under the Cartagena Protocol? -- C The conflict between the WTO Agreements and multilateral environmental agreementsmyth or reality? -- 1 The Doha Declaration and the treatment of the relationship between the WTO Agreements and MEAs -- 2 International treaty practice related to the regulation of the relationship between MEAs and the WTO Agreements -- D The presumption against conflict between MEAs and the WTO Agreements.

1 Scope and content of the 'presumption against conflict' in general public international law -- 2 The notion of conflict under WTO case law -- E Transcending the logic of conflict: towards new paths and principles of 'coexistence' and 'coherence' between the WTO Agreements and MEAs -- 1 The 'principle of not adding to or not diminishing the rights and obligations' provided for by other international agreements as a principle… -- (a) Significance of the principle -- (b) The right to determine the appropriate level of protection of the environment and public health is guaranteed by the application of the principle… -- (c) The absence of hierarchy between MEAs and the WTO Agreements -- 2 The principle of mutual supportiveness between international agreements as a principle in statu nascendi of coexistence and coherence between MEAs and WTO law -- (a) Significance of the principle -- (b) 'Institutional' aspects of the principle of mutual supportiveness -- (c) 'Regulatory' aspects of the principle of mutual supportiveness: the issue of standardisation -- F Assessing the compatibility of biotechnology regulations with the WTO Agreements -- 1 Regulations on GMOs and GATT 1994 -- 2 Regulations on GMOs and the SPS Agreement: about the acceptability of 'precaution' in international trade -- 3 The 'applicability' of the Cartagena Protocol in a WTO dispute -- G Conclusion -- 11 Risk regulation, precaution and trade -- A Introduction and overview -- B Risk regulation, precaution and trade -- 1 Risk regulation -- (a) Security, risk and risk regulation -- (b) Risk regulation of genetically modified organisms and the concept of substantial equivalence -- 2 Precaution -- (a) Origins -- (b) Concept of precaution -- (c) Status of precaution in international law -- 3 Trade -- C Environment and trade -- 1 National environmental legislation and international trade rules.

(a) 'Like products' -- (b) Process and production methods (PPMs) -- (c) General exceptions -- 2 Multilateral environment agreements (MEAs) and international trade rules -- (a) Characteristics of the international environment and trade regimes -- (b) General relationship between the international environment and trade regimes -- (c) Conflicts between the international environment and trade regimes -- (d) The principles of no hierarchy, mutual supportiveness and deference -- D WTO and precaution -- 1 The relationship between precaution and WTO law in general -- 2 WTO law and precaution -- E Conclusions -- PART V Medical research, cloning and international trade -- 12 Genetic engineering, free trade and human rightsglobal standards and local ethics -- A Introduction -- B Two conceptions of human dignity -- 1 Human dignity as empowerment -- 2 Human dignity as constraint -- 3 The tension between the rival approaches -- 4 Dignitarian exception and the case of cross-border gambling -- C A community of rights as an interpretive community -- D Connecting human dignity to human rights -- E Cosmopolitanism, convergence and divergence -- F Conclusion -- 13 The regulation of human genetics by international soft law and international trade -- A Introduction -- B Prohibition of reproductive cloning and debate on therapeutic cloning -- C The symbolic junction between the concept of common heritage of humanity and the restriction of the lucrative exploitation of human genetics -- D Human genetic research and sharing of scientific information? -- E Balancing the prohibition of financial gain against the patentability of human genetics -- F Conclusions -- Index.