Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Introduction -- 1.1 What Is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)? -- 1.1.1 Definition and Limitations -- 1.1.2 Life Cycle of a Product -- 1.1.3 Functional Unit -- 1.1.4 LCA as System Analysis -- 1.1.5 LCA and Operational Input-Output Analysis (Gate-to-Gate) -- 1.2 History -- 1.2.1 Early LCAs -- 1.2.2 Environmental Policy Background -- 1.2.3 Energy Analysis -- 1.2.4 The 1980s -- 1.2.5 The Role of SETAC -- 1.3 The Structure of LCA -- 1.3.1 Structure According to SETAC -- 1.3.2 Structure of LCA According to ISO -- 1.3.3 Valuation - a Separate Phase? -- 1.4 Standardisation of LCA -- 1.4.1 Process of Formation -- 1.4.2 Status Quo -- 1.5 Literature and Information on LCA -- References -- Chapter 2 Goal and Scope Definition -- 2.1 Goal Definition -- 2.2 Scope -- 2.2.1 Product System -- 2.2.2 Technical System Boundary -- 2.2.2.1 Cut-Off Criteria -- 2.2.2.2 Demarcation towards System Surrounding -- 2.2.3 Geographical System Boundary -- 2.2.4 Temporal System Boundary/Time Horizon -- 2.2.5 The Functional Unit -- 2.2.5.1 Definition of a Suitable Functional Unit and a Reference Flow -- 2.2.5.2 Impairment Factors on Comparison - Negligible Added Value -- 2.2.5.3 Procedure for Non-negligible Added Value -- 2.2.6 Data Availability and Depth of Study -- 2.2.7 Further Definitions -- 2.2.7.1 Type of Impact Assessment -- 2.2.7.2 Valuation (Weighting), Assumptions and Notions of Value -- 2.2.7.3 Critical Review -- 2.2.8 Further Definitions to the Scope -- 2.3 Illustration of the Component 'Definition of Goal and Scope' Using an Example of Practice -- 2.3.1 Goal Definition -- 2.3.2 Scope -- 2.3.2.1 Product Systems -- 2.3.2.2 Technical System Boundaries and Cut-Off Criteria -- 2.3.2.3 Demarcation to the System Surrounding -- 2.3.2.4 Geographical System Boundary.

2.3.2.5 Temporal System Boundary -- 2.3.2.6 Functional Unit and Reference Flow -- 2.3.2.7 Data Availability and Depth of Study -- 2.3.2.8 Type of Life Cycle Impact Assessment -- 2.3.2.9 Methods of Interpretation -- 2.3.2.10 Critical Review -- References -- Chapter 3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis -- 3.1 Basics -- 3.1.1 Scientific Principles -- 3.1.2 Literature on Fundamentals of the Inventory Analysis -- 3.1.3 The Unit Process as the Smallest Cell of LCI -- 3.1.3.1 Integration into the System Flow Chart -- 3.1.3.2 Balancing -- 3.1.4 Flow Charts -- 3.1.5 Reference Values -- 3.2 Energy Analysis -- 3.2.1 Introduction -- 3.2.2 Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) -- 3.2.2.1 Definition -- 3.2.2.2 Partial Amounts -- 3.2.2.3 Balancing Boundaries -- 3.2.3 Energy Content of Inflammable Materials -- 3.2.3.1 Fossil Fuels -- 3.2.3.2 Quantification -- 3.2.3.3 Infrastructure -- 3.2.4 Supply of Electricity -- 3.2.5 Transports -- 3.3 Allocation -- 3.3.1 Fundamentals of Allocation -- 3.3.2 Allocation by the Example of Co-production -- 3.3.2.1 Definition of Co-production -- 3.3.2.2 'Fair' Allocation? -- 3.3.2.3 Proposed Solutions -- 3.3.2.4 Further Approaches to the Allocation of Co-products -- 3.3.2.5 System Expansion -- 3.3.3 Allocation and Recycling in Closed-Loops and Re-use -- 3.3.4 Allocation and Recycling for Open-Loop Recycling (COLR) -- 3.3.4.1 Definition of the Problem -- 3.3.4.2 Allocation per Equal Parts -- 3.3.4.3 Cut-off Rule -- 3.3.4.4 Overall Load to System B -- 3.3.5 Allocation within Waste-LCAs -- 3.3.5.1 Modelling of Waste Disposal of a Product -- 3.3.5.2 Comparison of Different Options of Waste Disposal -- 3.3.6 Summary on Allocation -- 3.4 Procurement, Origin and Quality of Data -- 3.4.1 Refining the System Flow Chart and Preparing Data Procurement -- 3.4.2 Procurement of Specific Data.

3.4.3 Generic Data and Partial LCIs -- 3.4.3.1 Which Data are 'Generic'? -- 3.4.3.2 Reports, Publications, Web Sites -- 3.4.3.3 Purchasable Data Bases and Software Systems -- 3.4.4 Estimations -- 3.4.5 Data Quality and Documentation -- 3.5 Data Aggregation and Units -- 3.6 Presentation of Inventory Results -- 3.7 Illustration of the Inventory Phase by an Example -- 3.7.1 Differentiated Description of the Examined Product Systems -- 3.7.1.1 Materials in the Product System -- 3.7.1.2 Mass Flows of the Product after Use Phase -- 3.7.1.3 Handling of Sorting Residues and Mixed Plastics Fraction -- 3.7.1.4 Recovery of Transport Packaging -- 3.7.2 Analysis of Production, Recovery Technologies and Other Relevant Processes of the Production System -- 3.7.2.1 Production Procedures of the Materials -- 3.7.2.2 Production by Materials -- 3.7.2.3 Distribution -- 3.7.2.4 Collection and Sorting of Used Packaging -- 3.7.2.5 Recovery Technologies (Recycling) -- 3.7.2.6 Recycling of Transport Packagings -- 3.7.2.7 Transportation by Truck -- 3.7.2.8 Electricity Supply -- 3.7.3 Elaboration of a Differentiated System Flow Chart with Reference Flows -- 3.7.4 Allocation -- 3.7.4.1 Definition of Allocation Rules on Process Level -- 3.7.4.2 Definition of Allocation Rules on System Level for Open-Loop Recycling -- 3.7.5 Modelling of the System -- 3.7.6 Calculation of the Life Cycle Inventory -- 3.7.6.1 Input -- 3.7.6.2 Output -- References -- Chapter 4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment -- 4.1 Basic Principle of Life Cycle Impact Assessment -- 4.2 Method of Critical Volumes -- 4.2.1 Interpretation -- 4.2.2 Criticism -- 4.3 Structure of Impact Assessment according to ISO 14040 and 14044 -- 4.3.1 Mandatory and Optional Elements -- 4.3.2 Mandatory Elements.

4.3.2.1 Selection of Impact Categories - Indicators and Characterisation Factors -- 4.3.2.2 Classification -- 4.3.2.3 Characterisation -- 4.3.3 Optional Elements of LCIA -- 4.3.3.1 Normalisation -- 4.3.3.2 Grouping -- 4.3.3.3 Weighting -- 4.3.3.4 Additional Analysis of Data Quality -- 4.4 Method of Impact Categories (Environmental Problem Fields) -- 4.4.1 Introduction -- 4.4.2 First ('Historical') Lists of the Environmental Problem Fields -- 4.4.3 Stressor-Effect Relationships and Indicators -- 4.4.3.1 Hierarchy of Impacts -- 4.4.3.2 Potential versus Actual Impacts -- 4.5 Impact Categories, Impact Indicators and Characterisation Factors -- 4.5.1 Input-Related Impact Categories -- 4.5.1.1 Overview -- 4.5.1.2 Consumption of Abiotic Resources -- 4.5.1.3 Cumulative Energy and Exergy Demand -- 4.5.1.4 Consumption of Biotic Resources -- 4.5.1.5 Use of (Fresh) Water -- 4.5.1.6 Land Use -- 4.5.2 Output-Based Impact Categories (Global and Regional Impacts) -- 4.5.2.1 Overview -- 4.5.2.2 Climate Change -- 4.5.2.3 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion -- 4.5.2.4 Formation of Photo Oxidants (Summer Smog) -- 4.5.2.5 Acidification -- 4.5.2.6 Eutrophication -- 4.5.3 Toxicity-Related Impact Categories -- 4.5.3.1 Introduction -- 4.5.3.2 Human Toxicity -- 4.5.3.3 Ecotoxicity -- 4.5.3.4 Concluding Remark on the Toxicity Categories -- 4.5.4 Nuisances by Chemical and Physical Emissions -- 4.5.4.1 Introduction -- 4.5.4.2 Smell -- 4.5.4.3 Noise -- 4.5.5 Accidents and Radioactivity -- 4.5.5.1 Casualties -- 4.5.5.2 Radioactivity -- 4.6 Illustration of the Phase Impact Assessment by Practical Example -- 4.6.1 Selection of Impact Categories - Indicators and Characterisation Factors -- 4.6.1.1 (Greenhouse) Global Warming Potential -- 4.6.1.2 Photo-Oxidant Formation (Photo Smog or Summer Smog Potential) -- 4.6.1.3 Eutrophication Potential.

4.6.1.4 Acidification Potential -- 4.6.1.5 Resource Demand -- 4.6.2 Classification -- 4.6.3 Characterisation -- 4.6.4 Normalisation -- 4.6.5 Grouping -- 4.6.6 Weighting -- References -- Chapter 5 Life Cycle Interpretation, Reporting and Critical Review -- 5.1 Development and Rank of the Interpretation Phase -- 5.2 The Phase Interpretation According to ISO -- 5.2.1 Interpretation in ISO 14040 -- 5.2.2 Interpretation in ISO 14044 -- 5.2.3 Identification of Significant Issues -- 5.2.4 Evaluation -- 5.3 Techniques for Result Analysis -- 5.3.1 Scientific Background -- 5.3.2 Mathematical Methods -- 5.3.3 Non-numerical Methods -- 5.4 Reporting -- 5.5 Critical Review -- 5.5.1 Outlook -- 5.6 Illustration of the Component Interpretation Using an Example of Practice -- 5.6.1 Comparison Based on Impact Indicator Results -- 5.6.2 Comparison Based on Normalisation Results -- 5.6.3 Sectoral Analysis -- 5.6.4 Completeness, Consistency and Data Quality -- 5.6.5 Significance of Differences -- 5.6.6 Sensitivity Analyses -- 5.6.7 Restrictions -- 5.6.8 Conclusions and Recommendations -- 5.6.9 Critical Review -- References -- Chapter 6 From LCA to Sustainability Assessment -- 6.1 Sustainability -- 6.2 The Three Dimensions of Sustainability -- 6.3 State of the Art of Methods -- 6.3.1 Life Cycle Assessment - LCA -- 6.3.2 Life Cycle Costing - LCC -- 6.3.3 Product-Related Social Life Cycle Assessment - SLCA -- 6.4 One Life Cycle Assessment or Three? -- 6.4.1 Option 1 -- 6.4.2 Option 2 -- 6.5 Conclusions -- References -- Appendix A Solution of Exercises -- Appendix B Standard Report Sheet of Electricity Mix Germany (UBA 2000, Materials p. 179ff) Historic example, only for illustrative purposes -- Acronyms/Abbreviations -- Index.