Membrane and Desalination Technologies -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- 1: Membrane Technology: Past, Present and Future -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Membranes, Membrane Classifications and Membrane Configurations -- 1.2 Membrane Processes, Operation Modes and Membrane Fouling -- 2 Histrorical Developments of Membranes and Membrane Processes -- 2.1 Historical Background (Pre-1980s) -- 2.2 Reverse Osmosis -- 2.3 Ultrafiltration -- 2.4 Nanofiltration -- 2.5 Microfiltration -- 2.6 Gas Separation -- 2.7 Pervaporation -- 2.8 Membrane Bioreactors -- 3 Current Status of Membrane Technology -- 3.1 RO for Seawater and Brackish Water Desalination and Water Reclamation -- 3.1.1 Seawater and Brackish Water Desalination -- 3.1.2 Contaminated Aquifer Water and Municipal Wastewater Reclamations -- 3.2 Applications of NF, UF and MF Membranes -- 3.2.1 NF Membranes -- 3.2.2 MF and UF Membranes for Water Purifications -- 3.3 MBRs for Wastewater Treatments -- 3.4 Gas Separation -- 3.5 PV and its Hybrid Systems -- 4 Future Prospects -- 4.1 Membranes for Water, Food and Biopharmaceutical Industries -- 4.2 Membranes for Refinery, Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industries -- 4.3 Challenges for the Membrane Industry -- 4.4 Promising Membrane Systems -- 5 Concluding Remarks -- References -- 2: Preparation of Polymeric Membranes -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Membrane Classification -- 2.1. Isotropic Membranes -- 2.2. Anisotropic Membranes -- 2.3. Membrane Processes -- 2.3.1. Gas Separation and Pervaporation -- 2.3.2. Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration -- 2.3.3. Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration -- 2.3.4. Filter -- 3. Membrane Materials -- 3.1. Cellulose and Cellulose Acetate -- 3.2. Polysulfone -- 3.3. Polyethersulfone -- 3.4. Polyacrylonitrile -- 3.5. Polyvinylidene Fluoride -- 3.6. Polyetherimide -- 3.7. Polycarbonate -- 3.8. Polyamide -- 3.9. Polyimide.

3.10. Polyether Ether Ketones -- 3.11. Poly(phthalazine ether sulfone ketone) -- 3.12. Polyether Block Amide -- 4. Phase Inversion Membranes -- 4.1. Thermodynamics of the Polymer Solution -- 4.1.1. Thermally Induced Phase Separation -- Glass Transition -- Gelation Point -- Vitrification and Coarsening Phenomenon -- 4.1.2. Diffusion Induced Phase Separation -- Phase Diagram -- Thermodynamic Description of the Polymer Solution -- Linearized Cloud Point Curve Correlation -- Approaching Ratio -- Approaching Coagulation Ratio -- 4.2. Membrane Formation Processes -- 4.2.1. Delay Time -- 4.2.2. Gelation Time -- 4.2.3. Formation of Nascent Porous Membrane Morphologies -- 4.2.4. Vitrification of Membrane Morphology -- 4.2.5. Membrane Surface Formation of Porous Membranes -- 4.2.6. Macrovoid Formation -- Influence of Approaching Ratio on Membrane Morphology -- Influence of Membrane Thickness on Membrane Morphology -- 5. Preparation of Asymmetric Membranes by Phase Inversion Technique -- 5.1. Preparation of Hollow Fiber Membranes -- 5.1.1. Rheology of the Polymer Solution Inside the Spinneret -- 5.1.2. Nascent Hollow Fiber Membranes in the Air Gap -- Viscoelasticity and Relaxation Time -- Elongation Flow in the Air Gap -- External tensile force -- Free fall spinning -- 5.1.3. Dimension of the Hollow Fiber Membranes -- 5.2. Preparation of Flat Sheet Membranes -- 5.2.1. Hydrodynamics of the Polymer Solution at the Casting Window -- 6. Acronyms -- 7. Nomenclature -- References -- 3: Advanced Membrane Fouling Characterization in Full-Scale Reverse Osmosis Processes -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Membrane Fouling and Control -- 2.1 Factors Affecting Membrane Fouling -- 2.2 Types of Fouling in RO Processes -- 2.3 Silt Density Index -- 2.4 Pretreatment -- 2.5 Membrane Cleaning -- 2.6 Challenges -- 3 Quantification of Fouling Potential of Feed Water.

3.1 Desirable Attributes for Fouling Potential Parameter -- 3.2 An Inclusive Parameter for Fouling Potential -- 3.3 Membrane Device for Fouling Potential Measurement -- 3.4 Properties of Fouling Potential of Feed Water -- 4 Prediction of Fouling in Full-scale Reverse Osmosis Processes -- 4.1 Model Development -- 4.2 Fouling Development in a Long Membrane Channel -- 4.3 Influence of Feed Water Fouling Potential -- 4.4 Influence of Channel Length -- 4.5 Influence of Clean Membrane Resistance -- 4.6 Characteristic Pressure of a Long Membrane Channel -- 5 Membrane Fouling Quantification in Full-S cale Reverse Osmosis Processes -- 5.1 The Need for an Effective Fouling Characterization Method -- 5.2 Filtration Coefficient of a Long Membrane Channel -- 5.3 Fouling Index for a Long Membrane Channel -- 6 Conclusions -- 7 Acronyms -- 8 Nomenclature -- References -- 4: Membrane Filtration Regulations and Determination of Log Removal Value -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Membranes for the Potable Water Industry -- 3. Long Term 2 ESWTR and Stage 2 DBPR Regulations -- 3.1. Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule -- 3.2. Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule -- 3.2.1. Initial Distribution System Evaluations -- 3.2.2. Compliance Determination and Schedule -- 3.2.3. Compliance Monitoring -- 3.2.4. Significant Excursion Evaluations -- 3.3. Requirements for Membrane Filtration under the LT2ESWTR -- 3.3.1. Definition of a Membrane Filtration Process -- 3.3.2. Challenge Testing -- 3.3.3. Direct Integrity Testing -- 3.3.4. Continuous Indirect Integrity Monitoring -- 3.4. Considering Existing Membrane Facilities under the LT2ESWTR -- 3.5. Membrane Terminology Used in the Guidance Manual -- 3.6. Summary of US EPA Regulatory Framework -- 3.6.1. Compliance with the Definition of Membrane Filtration.

3.6.2. Establishment of Membrane Filtration Processś Removal Efficiency Through a Product-Specific Challenge Test and Direct I -- 3.6.3. Requirement of Periodic Direct Integrity Testing and Continuous Indirect Integrity Monitoring During Operation -- 3.6.4. Summary of Rule Requirements -- 4. Challenge Testing: Determination of LRV -- 4.1. Core Requirements for Challenge Testing -- 4.2. Test Organization Qualification -- 4.3. General Procedure for Designing a Challenge Test Protocol -- 4.4. Nondestructive Performance Testing -- 4.5. Selection of Modules for Challenge Testing -- 4.6. Small-Scale Module Testing -- 4.7. Target Organisms and Challenge Particulates -- 4.7.1. Selecting a Target Organism -- 4.7.2. Surrogate Characteristics -- 4.7.3. Surrogates for Cryptosporidium -- 4.8. Challenge Test Solutions -- 4.8.1. Test Solution Water Quality -- 4.8.2. Test Solution Volume -- 4.8.3. Test Solution Concentration -- 4.8.4. Challenge Particulate Seeding Method -- 4.9. Challenge Test Systems -- 4.9.1. Test Apparatus -- 4.9.2. Test Operating Conditions -- 4.10. Sampling -- 4.10.1. Sampling Methods -- 4.10.2. Sample Port Design and Location -- 4.10.3. Process Monitoring -- 4.10.4. Sample Plan Development -- 4.11. Analysis and Reporting of Challenge Test Results -- 4.11.1. Calculation of Removal Efficiency -- 4.11.2. Statistical Analysis -- 4.11.3. Reporting -- 4.12. Retesting of Modified Membrane Modules -- 4.13. Grandfathering Challenge Test Data from Previous Studies -- 4.14. Summary of the US EPA Required Challenge Testing -- 5. Direct Integrity Testing -- 5.1. Core Requirements of Direct Integrity Testing -- 5.2. Resolution and Sensitivity -- 5.3. Summary of the US EPA Required Direct Integrity Testing -- 6. Continuous Indirect Integrity Monitoring -- 6.1. Core Requirements of Continuous Indirect Integrity Monitoring.

6.2. Summary of the US EPA Required Continuous Indirect Integrity Monitoring -- 7. Design Example: Challenge Test Solution Design Scenario -- 8. Guidelines for Comparing Membrane Filtration with Other Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes for Giardia Cysts, Cryptosporidum Oocysts and Virus Removal -- 9. Case Study of Challenge Testing for Comparing Microfiltration and Continuously Backwashed Dual Sand Filtration Technologies -- 10. Acronyms -- 11. Nomenclature -- References -- 5: Treatment of Industrial Effluents, Municipal Wastes, and Potable Water by Membrane Bioreactors -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. General Introduction -- 1.2. Historical Development -- 1.2.1. Nanofiltration -- 1.2.2. Reverse Osmosis -- 1.3. Physical-Chemical Pretreatment Prior to Membrane Process -- 1.3.1. Biological Pretreatment Prior to Membrane Process -- 1.4. Physical-Chemical-Biological Pretreatment Prior to Membrane Process -- 1.5. Membrane Bioreactors Research and Engineering Applications -- 2. MBR Process Description -- 2.1. Membrane Bioreactor with Membrane Module Submerged in the Bioreactor -- 2.2. Membrane Bioreactor with Membrane Module Situated Outside the Bioreactor -- 2.3. MBR System Features -- 2.4. Membrane Module Design Considerations -- 3. Process Comparison -- 3.1. Similarity -- 3.2. Dissimilarity -- 3.2.1. Reactor, MLSS, and Space Requirement Comparison -- 3.2.2. Effluent Quality Comparison -- 3.2.3. Cost Comparison and Water Recycle Considerations -- 3.2.4. Waste Treatment Consideration -- 3.2.5. Summary -- 4. Process Applications -- 4.1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment -- 4.2. Municipal Wastewater and Leachate Treatments -- 5. Practical Examples -- 5.1. Example 1: Dairy Industry -- 5.1.1. Solution -- 5.2. Example 2: Landfill Leachate Treatment -- 5.2.1. Solution -- 5.3. Example 3: Coffee Industry -- 5.3.1. Solution -- 5.4. Example 4: Cosmetics Industry.

5.4.1. Solution.