Electric Vehicle Technology Explained -- Contents -- About the Author -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- Symbols -- Chapter 1 Introduction -- 1.1 A Brief History -- 1.1.1 Early Days -- 1.1.2 The Middle of the Twentieth Century -- 1.1.3 Developments towards the End of the Twentieth Century and the Early Twenty-First Century -- 1.2 Electric Vehicles and the Environment -- 1.2.1 Energy Saving and Overall Reduction of Carbon Emissions -- 1.2.2 Reducing Local Pollution -- 1.2.3 Reducing Dependence on Oil -- 1.3 Usage Patterns for Electric Road Vehicles -- Further Reading -- Chapter 2 Types of Electric Vehicles-EV Architecture -- 2.1 Battery Electric Vehicles -- 2.2 The IC Engine/Electric Hybrid Vehicle -- 2.3 Fuelled EVs -- 2.4 EVs using Supply Lines -- 2.5 EVs which use Flywheels or Supercapacitors -- 2.6 Solar-Powered Vehicles -- 2.7 Vehicles using Linear Motors -- 2.8 EVs for the Future -- Further Reading -- Chapter 3 Batteries, Flywheels and Supercapacitors -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Battery Parameters -- 3.2.1 Cell and Battery Voltages -- 3.2.2 Charge (or Amphour) Capacity -- 3.2.3 Energy Stored -- 3.2.4 Specific Energy -- 3.2.5 Energy Density -- 3.2.6 Specific Power -- 3.2.7 Amphour (or Charge) Efficiency -- 3.2.8 Energy Efficiency -- 3.2.9 Self-discharge Rates -- 3.2.10 Battery Geometry -- 3.2.11 Battery Temperature, Heating and Cooling Needs -- 3.2.12 Battery Life and Number of Deep Cycles -- 3.3 Lead Acid Batteries -- 3.3.1 Lead Acid Battery Basics -- 3.3.2 Special Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries -- 3.3.3 Battery Life and Maintenance -- 3.3.4 Battery Charging -- 3.3.5 Summary of Lead Acid Batteries -- 3.4 Nickel-Based Batteries -- 3.4.1 Introduction -- 3.4.2 Nickel Cadmium -- 3.4.3 Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries -- 3.5 Sodium-Based Batteries -- 3.5.1 Introduction.

3.5.2 Sodium Sulfur Batteries -- 3.5.3 Sodium Metal Chloride (ZEBRA) Batteries -- 3.6 Lithium Batteries -- 3.6.1 Introduction -- 3.6.2 The Lithium Polymer Battery -- 3.6.3 The Lithium Ion Battery -- 3.7 Metal-Air Batteries -- 3.7.1 Introduction -- 3.7.2 The Aluminium-Air Battery -- 3.7.3 The Zinc-Air Battery -- 3.8 Supercapacitors and Flywheels -- 3.8.1 Supercapacitors -- 3.8.2 Flywheels -- 3.9 Battery Charging -- 3.9.1 Battery Chargers -- 3.9.2 Charge Equalisation -- 3.10 The Designer's Choice of Battery -- 3.10.1 Introduction -- 3.10.2 Batteries which are Currently Available Commercially -- 3.11 Use of Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles -- 3.11.1 Introduction -- 3.11.2 IC/Battery Electric Hybrids -- 3.11.3 Battery/Battery Electric Hybrids -- 3.11.4 Combinations using Flywheels -- 3.11.5 Complex Hybrids -- 3.12 Battery Modelling -- 3.12.1 The Purpose of Battery Modelling -- 3.12.2 Battery Equivalent Circuit -- 3.12.3 Modelling Battery Capacity -- 3.12.4 Simulating a Battery at a Set Power -- 3.12.5 Calculating the Peukert Coefficient -- 3.12.6 Approximate Battery Sizing -- 3.13 In Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4 Electricity Supply -- 4.1 Normal Existing Domestic and Industrial Electricity Supply -- 4.2 Infrastructure Needed for Charging Electric Vehicles -- 4.3 Electricity Supply Rails -- 4.4 Inductive Power Transfer for Moving Vehicles -- 4.5 Battery Swapping -- Further Reading -- Chapter 5 Fuel Cells -- 5.1 Fuel Cells-A Real Option? -- 5.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells-Basic Principles -- 5.2.1 Electrode Reactions -- 5.2.2 Different Electrolytes -- 5.2.3 Fuel Cell Electrodes -- 5.3 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics-An Introduction -- 5.3.1 Fuel Cell Efficiency and Efficiency Limits -- 5.3.2 Efficiency and the Fuel Cell Voltage -- 5.3.3 Practical Fuel Cell Voltages.

5.3.4 The Effect of Pressure and Gas Concentration -- 5.4 Connecting Cells in Series-The Bipolar Plate -- 5.5 Water Management in the PEMFC -- 5.5.1 Introduction to the Water Problem -- 5.5.2 The Electrolyte of a PEMFC -- 5.5.3 Keeping the PEM Hydrated -- 5.6 Thermal Management of the PEMFC -- 5.7 A Complete Fuel Cell System -- 5.8 Practical Efficiency of Fuel Cells -- References -- Chapter 6 Hydrogen as a Fuel-Its Production and Storage -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Hydrogen as a Fuel -- 6.3 Fuel Reforming -- 6.3.1 Fuel Cell Requirements -- 6.3.2 Steam Reforming -- 6.3.3 Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming -- 6.3.4 Further Fuel Processing-Carbon Monoxide Removal -- 6.3.5 Practical Fuel Processing for Mobile Applications -- 6.3.6 Energy Efficiency of Reforming -- 6.4 Energy Efficiency of Reforming -- 6.5 Hydrogen Storage I-Storage as Hydrogen -- 6.5.1 Introduction to the Problem -- 6.5.2 Safety -- 6.5.3 The Storage of Hydrogen as a Compressed Gas -- 6.5.4 Storage of Hydrogen as a Liquid -- 6.5.5 Reversible Metal Hydride Hydrogen Stores -- 6.5.6 Carbon Nanofibres -- 6.5.7 Storage Methods Compared -- 6.6 Hydrogen Storage II-Chemical Methods -- 6.6.1 Introduction -- 6.6.2 Methanol -- 6.6.3 Alkali Metal Hydrides -- 6.6.4 Sodium Borohydride -- 6.6.5 Ammonia -- 6.6.6 Storage Methods Compared -- References -- Chapter 7 Electric Machines and their Controllers -- 7.1 The `Brushed' DC Electric Motor -- 7.1.1 Operation of the Basic DC Motor -- 7.1.2 Torque Speed Characteristics -- 7.1.3 Controlling the Brushed DC Motor -- 7.1.4 Providing the Magnetic Field for DC Motors -- 7.1.5 DC Motor Efficiency -- 7.1.6 Motor Losses and Motor Size -- 7.1.7 Electric Motors as Brakes -- 7.2 DC Regulation and Voltage Conversion -- 7.2.1 Switching Devices -- 7.2.2 Step-Down or `Buck' Regulators.

7.2.3 Step-Up or `Boost' Switching Regulator -- 7.2.4 Single-Phase Inverters -- 7.2.5 Three Phase -- 7.3 Brushless Electric Motors -- 7.3.1 Introduction -- 7.3.2 The Brushless DC Motor -- 7.3.3 Switched Reluctance Motors -- 7.3.4 The Induction Motor -- 7.4 Motor Cooling, Efficiency, Size and Mass -- 7.4.1 Improving Motor Efficiency -- 7.4.2 Motor Mass -- 7.5 Electric Machines for Hybrid Vehicles -- 7.6 Linear Motors -- References -- Chapter 8 Electric Vehicle Modelling -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Tractive Effort -- 8.2.1 Introduction -- 8.2.2 Rolling Resistance Force -- 8.2.3 Aerodynamic Drag -- 8.2.4 Hill Climbing Force -- 8.2.5 Acceleration Force -- 8.2.6 Total Tractive Effort -- 8.3 Modelling Vehicle Acceleration -- 8.3.1 Acceleration Performance Parameters -- 8.3.2 Modelling the Acceleration of an Electric Scooter -- 8.3.3 Modelling the Acceleration of a Small Car -- 8.4 Modelling Electric Vehicle Range -- 8.4.1 Driving Cycles -- 8.4.2 Range Modelling of Battery Electric Vehicles -- 8.4.3 Constant Velocity Range Modelling -- 8.4.4 Other uses of Simulations -- 8.4.5 Range Modelling of Fuel Cell Vehicles -- 8.4.6 Range Modelling of Hybrid Electric Vehicles -- 8.5 Simulations-A Summary -- References -- Chapter 9 Design Considerations -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Aerodynamic Considerations -- 9.2.1 Aerodynamics and Energy -- 9.2.2 Body/Chassis Aerodynamic Shape -- 9.3 Consideration of Rolling Resistance -- 9.4 Transmission Efficiency -- 9.5 Consideration of Vehicle Mass -- 9.6 Electric Vehicle Chassis and Body Design -- 9.6.1 Body/Chassis Requirements -- 9.6.2 Body/Chassis Layout -- 9.6.3 Body/Chassis Strength, Rigidity and Crash Resistance -- 9.6.4 Designing for Stability -- 9.6.5 Suspension for Electric Vehicles.

9.6.6 Examples of Chassis used in Modern Battery and Hybrid Electric Vehicles -- 9.6.7 Chassis used in Modern Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles -- 9.7 General Issues in Design -- 9.7.1 Design Specifications -- 9.7.2 Software in the use of Electric Vehicle Design -- Chapter 10 Design of Ancillary Systems -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Heating and Cooling Systems -- 10.3 Design of the Controls -- 10.4 Power Steering -- 10.5 Choice of Tyres -- 10.6 Wing Mirrors, Aerials and Luggage Racks -- 10.7 Electric Vehicle Recharging and Refuelling Systems -- Chapter 11 Efficiencies and Carbon Release Comparison -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Definition of Efficiency -- 11.3 Carbon Dioxide Emission and Chemical Energy in Fuel -- Chapter 12 Electric Vehicles and the Environment -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Vehicle Pollution-The Effects -- 12.3 Vehicle Pollution in Context -- 12.4 The Role of Regulations and Lawmakers -- Further Reading -- Chapter 13 Power Generation for Transport-Particularly for Zero Emissions -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Power Generation using Fossil Fuels -- 13.3 Alternative and Sustainable Energy -- 13.3.1 Solar Energy -- 13.3.2 Wind Energy -- 13.3.3 Hydroelectricity -- 13.3.4 Tidal Energy -- 13.3.5 Marine Currents -- 13.3.6 Wave Energy -- 13.3.7 Biomass Energy -- 13.3.8 Obtaining Energy from Waste -- 13.3.9 Geothermal Energy -- 13.4 Nuclear Energy -- 13.4.1 Nuclear Fission -- 13.4.2 Nuclear Fusion -- 13.5 In Conclusion -- Further Reading -- Chapter 14 Recent Electric Vehicles -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Low-Speed Rechargeable Battery Vehicles -- 14.2.1 Electric Bicycles -- 14.2.2 Electric Mobility Aids -- 14.2.3 Low-Speed Vehicles -- 14.3 Battery-Powered Cars and Vans -- 14.3.1 Peugeot 106 and the Partner -- 14.3.2 The GM EV1 -- 14.3.3 The Nissan Leaf -- 14.3.4 The Mitsubishi MiEV -- 14.4 Hybrid Vehicles.

14.4.1 The Honda Insight.