Front Cover -- Biofuels from Algae -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1: An Open Pond System for Microalgal Cultivation -- 1.1. Introduction -- 1.2. Biotechnology and Microalgae -- 1.3. Open Pond Systems -- 1.4. Main Microalgae Cultivated in Open Pond Systems -- 1.4.1. Spirulina -- 1.4.2. Chlorella -- 1.4.3. Dunaliella -- 1.5 Reactor Design -- 1.6. Light Regime -- 1.7. Hydrodynamics of the Reactor -- 1.8. Fixation of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) -- 1.9. Temperature -- 1.10. pH -- 1.11. Sterility of Cultivation -- 1.12. Biomass Harvest -- 1.12.1. Sedimentation Using Gravity -- 1.12.2. Flocculation -- 1.12.3. Centrifugation -- 1.12.4. Filtration -- 1.12.5. Flotation -- 1.12.6. Electrophoresis -- 1.13. Drying of Biomass -- 1.14. Other Microalgal Culture Systems -- 1.14.1. Closed Photobioreactors -- 1.14.2. Hybrid Photobioreactors -- 1.15. Applications of Biomass -- 1.15.1. Food -- 1.15.2. Drugs -- 1.15.3. Biopigments -- 1.15.4. Biopolymers -- 1.15.5. Biofuels -- 1.15.6. Biofertilizers -- 1.16. Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: Design of Photobioreactors for Algal Cultivation -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Factors Affecting Microalgae Growth and Biofuels Production -- 2.2.1. Carbon Sources -- 2.2.2. Nitrogen Source -- 2.2.3. Light Supply -- 2.2.4. Temperature -- 2.2.5. pH -- 2.2.6. Salinity -- 2.3. Photobioreactor Design Principles -- 2.4. Microalgae Cultivation in Closed and Open PBRs for Biofuel Production -- 2.4.1. Open Systems -- 2.4.1.1. Simple Ponds -- 2.4.1.2. Raceway Ponds -- 2.4.2. Closed Systems -- 2.4.2.1. Vertical Column Photobioreactors -- 2.4.2.2. Flat Plate Photobioreactors -- 2.4.2.3. Horizontal Tubular Photobioreactors -- 2.4.3. General Discussion of Microalgae Cultivation Systems -- 2.5. Commercial Microalgae Cultivation Systems for Biofuel Production -- 2.6. Conclusions -- References.

Chapter 3: Metabolic Engineering and Molecular Biotechnology of Microalgae for Fuel Production -- 3.1. Introduction -- 3.2. Biodiesel -- 3.3. Biohydrogen -- 3.4. Other Strategies -- 3.4.1. Optimization of Light Conversion Efficiency (LHCB) -- 3.4.2. Recycling and Recovery of Co-products -- 3.5. Challenges and Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 4: Respirometric Balance and Carbon Fixation of Industrially Important Algae -- 4.1. Introduction -- 4.1.1. Microalgal Metabolism -- 4.1.2. Photosynthesis -- 4.1.3. Microalgae Culture Fundamentals -- 4.2. Carbon Dioxide Fixation by Microalgae -- 4.2.1. Carbon Dioxideś Role in Photobioreactors -- 4.2.2. Methods of CO2 Fixation Quantification -- 4.2.3. Carbon Fixation of Industrially Important Microalgae -- 4.2.3.1. Chlorella vulgaris -- 4.2.3.2. Botryococcus braunii -- 4.2.3.3. Spirulina platensis -- 4.2.3.4. Dunaliella sp. -- 4.2.3.5. Haematococcus sp. -- 4.3. Practical Aspects of Mass Cultivation for CO2 Fixation -- 4.3.1. Cultivation Vessels -- 4.3.2. Light Diffusion -- 4.3.3. Mixing -- 4.4. Carbon Market for Microalgal Technologies -- References -- Chapter 5: Algal Biomass Harvesting -- 5.1. Introduction -- 5.2. Stability and Separability of Microalgae -- 5.3. Methods of Algae Harvesting -- 5.3.1. Screening -- 5.3.1.1. Microstraining -- 5.3.1.2. Vibrating Screens -- 5.3.2. Coagulation-Flocculation -- 5.3.3. Filtration -- 5.3.3.1. Pressure Filtration -- 5.3.3.2. Vacuum Filtration -- 5.3.3.3. Deep-Bed Filtration -- 5.3.3.4. Cross-Flow Ultrafiltration -- 5.3.3.5. Magnetic Filtration -- 5.3.4. Gravity Sedimentation -- 5.3.4.1. Clarification in Simple Sedimentation Tanks or Ponds -- 5.3.4.2. Lamella-Type Sedimentation Tanks -- 5.3.4.3. Flocculation-Sedimentation -- 5.3.5. Flotation -- 5.3.5.1. Dissolved-Air Flotation -- 5.3.5.2. Electroflotation -- 5.3.5.3. Dispersed-Air Flotation -- 5.3.5.4. Ozone Flotation.

5.3.6. Centrifugation -- 5.3.6.1. Hydrocyclone -- 5.3.6.2. Solid-Bowl Decanter Centrifuge -- 5.3.6.3. Nozzle-Type Centrifuge -- 5.3.6.4. Solid-Ejecting Disc Centrifuge -- 5.3.7. Electrophoresis, Electroflotation, and Electroflocculation Techniques -- 5.3.8. Ultrasonic Methods -- 5.4. Challenges and Prospects -- 5.5. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Heterotrophic Production of Algal Oils -- 6.1. Introduction -- 6.2. Heterotrophy of Microalgae -- 6.3. Potential of Heterotrophic Algal Oils -- 6.4. Factors Affecting Heterotrophic Production of Algal Oils -- 6.5. High Cell Density of Heterotrophic Algae -- 6.5.1. Fed-Batch Cultivation -- 6.5.2. Continuous Cultivation -- 6.5.3. Continuous Cultivation with Cell Recycling -- 6.6. Chlorella as the Cell Factory for Heterotrophic Oils -- 6.6.1. Oil Production Potential -- 6.6.2. Downstream Processes -- 6.7. Possible Improvements of Economics in Heterotrophic Algal Oils -- 6.8. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: Production of Biofuels from Algal Biomass by Fast Pyrolysis -- 7.1. Introduction -- 7.1.1. The Energetic Issue -- 7.1.2. Culture Medium -- 7.1.3. Vinasse -- 7.1.4. Market Value -- 7.1.5. Pyrolysis -- 7.2. Fast Pyrolysis -- 7.3. Yields and Characteristics of Pyrolysis of Algal Biomass -- 7.4. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: Algae Oils as Fuels -- 8.1. Introduction -- 8.2. Cellular Biochemistry Toward Lipid Synthesis -- 8.2.1. Glucose Accumulation Inside the Cell -- 8.2.2. Formation of Acetyl-CoA/Malonyl-CoA -- 8.2.3. Synthesis of Palmitic Acid -- 8.2.4. Synthesis of Higher Fatty Acids -- 8.3. Nutritional Mode of Microalgae -- 8.3.1. Photoautotrophic Mechanism -- 8.3.2. Heterotrophic Mechanism -- 8.3.3. Mixotrophic Mechanism -- 8.4. Substrates for Microalgae Growth and Lipid Production -- 8.4.1. CO2 -- 8.4.2. Wastewater -- 8.5. Microalgae Cultivation.

8.5.1. Open Pond Cultivation Systems -- 8.5.2. Closed Cultivation Systems (Photobioreactors) -- 8.5.2.1. Vertical Tubular Photobioreactors -- 8.5.2.2. Airlift Photobioreactors -- 8.5.2.3. Bubble Column Photobioreactors -- 8.5.2.4. Flat Panel Photobioreactors -- 8.5.2.5. Helical-Type Photobioreactors -- 8.5.2.6. Stirred-Tank Photobioreactors -- 8.6. Preparation of Algal Fuel/Biodiesel -- 8.6.1. Cell Disruption -- 8.6.1.1. Expeller Press Method -- 8.6.1.2. Bead-Beating Method -- 8.6.2. Extraction of Algae Oil -- 8.6.2.1. Solvent Extraction -- 8.6.2.2. Soxhlet Extraction -- 8.6.2.3. Wet Lipid Extraction -- 8.6.2.4. Hydrothermal Liquefaction -- 8.6.2.5. Ultrasonic Extraction -- 8.6.2.6. Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction (SC-CO2) -- 8.6.2.7. Pulse Electric Field Technologies -- 8.6.2.8. Enzymatic Treatment -- 8.6.2.9. Osmotic Shock -- 8.7. Transesterification -- 8.7.1. Direct Transesterification -- 8.7.2. Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification -- 8.7.3. Base-Catalyzed Transesterification -- 8.7.4. Enzyme-Catalyzed Transesterification -- 8.8. Algal Fuel Properties -- 8.9. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 9: Production of Biohydrogen from Microalgae -- 9.1. Introduction -- 9.2. Pathways of Hydrogen Production -- 9.2.1. Direct Photolysis -- 9.2.2. Indirect Photolysis -- 9.2.3. Endogenous Substrate Catabolism -- 9.2.4. Dark Fermentation -- 9.3. Bioreactor Design and Operation -- 9.4. Economic Evaluation -- 9.5. Prospects and Challenges -- 9.6. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10: Applications of Spent Biomass -- 10.1. Introduction -- 10.2. Spent Biomass for Biofuel Production -- 10.2.1. Hydrogen -- 10.2.2. Ethanol -- 10.2.3. Bio-oil -- 10.2.4. Biochar -- 10.2.5. Biodiesel -- 10.3. Spent Biomass for Fine Chemical Production -- 10.3.1. Polysaccharide Material -- 10.3.1.1. Dietary Fibers -- 10.3.1.2. Hydrocolloids -- 10.3.1.2.1. Alginates.

10.3.1.2.2. Carrageenans -- 10.3.1.2.3. Agars -- 10.3.2. Proteinaceous Compounds -- 10.3.2.1. Proteins -- 10.3.2.2. Peptides -- 10.3.2.3. Free Amino Acids -- 10.3.3. Lipid Compounds -- 10.3.3.1. Phospholipids -- 10.3.3.2. Glycolipids -- 10.3.3.3. Sterols -- 10.3.4. Pigment Materials -- 10.3.4.1. Chlorophylls -- 10.3.4.2. Carotenoids -- 10.3.4.3. Phycobiliproteins -- 10.3.5. Halogenated Materials -- 10.3.5.1. Iodine -- 10.3.5.2. Halogenated Derivatives -- 10.3.6. Phenolic Materials -- 10.4. Bioremediation -- 10.4.1. Carbon Dioxide Sequestering -- 10.4.2. Wastewater Treatment -- 10.5. Feed -- 10.5.1. Fertilizer (Plant Feed) -- 10.5.2. Animal Feed -- 10.6. Final Considerations -- References -- Chapter 11: Hydrothermal Upgradation of Algae into Value-added Hydrocarbons -- 11.1. Introduction -- 11.2. Algal biomass -- 11.2.1. Microalgae/Defatted Microalgae -- 11.2.2. Production Systems -- 11.2.3. Harvesting of Microalgae -- 11.3. Macroalgae -- 11.3.1. Production Systems -- 11.3.2. Habitats for Red, Green, and Brown Macroalgae -- 11.4. Thermochemical conversion -- 11.5. Hydrothermal upgradation -- 11.5.1. Reaction Media: Subcritical and Supercritical Water -- 11.5.2. Hydrothermal Chemistry -- 11.5.3. Reactors -- 11.5.4. Catalysts -- 11.5.5. Homogeneous -- 11.5.6. Heterogeneous Catalysts -- 11.6. Hydrothermal processes for upgradation of algae -- 11.6.1. Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Model Compounds -- 11.6.2. Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Microalgae -- 11.6.3. Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Algae Followed by Catalytic Hydrothermal Upgradation -- 11.6.4. Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Macroalgae -- 11.6.5. Two-Step Sequential Hydrothermal Liquefaction -- 11.6.6. Hydrothermal Gasification of Algae -- 11.6.7. Hydrothermal Carbonization of Algae -- 11.7. Opportunities and challenges -- References.

Chapter 12: Scale-Up and Commercialization of Algal Cultivation and Biofuel Production.