Mobile Backhaul -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgements -- List of Abbreviations -- List of Contributors -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Why Read This Book -- 1.2 What is 'Mobile Backhaul' -- 1.3 Targets and Scope of the Book -- 1.4 Organization of the Book -- PART I: MOBILE AND PACKET NETWORKS -- 2 Mobile Backhaul and the New Packet Era -- 2.1 Backhaul Network, Tiers and Costs -- 2.1.1 Backhaul Network Tiers -- 2.1.2 Backhaul Network Costs Distribution -- 2.2 Legacy Backhaul Networks -- 2.2.1 Backhaul Basic Technologies -- 2.2.2 Backhaul Topology -- 2.3 Drivers for the MBH Network Change -- 2.3.1 Mobile Service Developments and Traffic Growth -- 2.3.2 Mobile Network Developments -- 2.3.3 Backhaul Cost-Efficiency Improvements -- 2.3.4 Lower Operational Costs -- 2.3.5 Developments in General Transport -- 2.4 Packet Based Backhaul Networks -- 2.4.1 Physical Network and Topology -- 2.4.2 Logical Network and Protocol Layers -- 2.5 Making Transition to Packet Technology Networks -- 2.5.1 Transition Strategies for Packet-Based Backhaul -- 2.5.2 Implementing Transition and Network Evolution -- 3 3GPP Mobile Systems -- 3.1 3GPP -- 3.1.1 Radio Technologies and Backhaul -- 3.1.2 Organization -- 3.1.3 Specifications -- 3.1.4 Releases -- 3.2 2G -- 3.2.1 Circuit Switched Traffic -- 3.2.2 Packet Switched Traffic -- 3.2.3 Abis -- 3.3 3G -- 3.3.1 Circuit Switched Traffic -- 3.3.2 Packet Switched Traffic -- 3.3.3 3G Air Interface Channels -- 3.3.4 FP, MAC and RLC Protocols -- 3.3.5 HSDPA (HS-DSCH) and HSUPA (E-DCH) -- 3.3.6 Iub -- 3.3.7 Iur -- 3.3.8 Iu-cs -- 3.3.9 Iu-ps -- 3.3.10 GTP-U Protocol -- 3.4 LTE -- 3.4.1 Architecture -- 3.4.2 Packet Switched Traffic -- 3.4.3 Air Interface -- 3.4.4 S1 -- 3.4.5 X2 -- 3.4.6 Bearers -- 3.4.7 Mobility Management -- 3.4.8 Interworking with 2G and 3G -- 3.4.9 Voice Support -- 3.4.10 Self Configuration and Self-Optimization.

3.5 Summary -- References -- 4 Packet Networks -- 4.1 Mobile Backhaul Application -- 4.1.1 Backhaul Service -- 4.1.2 Access, Aggregation and Core -- 4.1.3 3GPP Guidance for the Backhaul -- 4.1.4 Networking and Backhaul -- 4.2 Standardization -- 4.2.1 IEEE -- 4.2.2 IETF -- 4.2.3 ISO -- 4.2.4 ITU-T -- 4.2.5 MEF -- 4.2.6 IP/MPLS Forum -- 4.3 Physical Interfaces -- 4.3.1 High Data Rates -- 4.3.2 Ethernet Ports -- 4.3.3 E1/T1/JT1 -- 4.3.4 SDH/Sonet -- 4.4 PPP and ML-PPP -- 4.4.1 PPP over E1/T1/JT1 -- 4.4.2 ML-PPP -- 4.4.3 PPP over Sonet/SDH -- 4.5 Ethernet and Carrier Ethernet -- 4.5.1 Carrier Ethernet -- 4.5.2 Ethernet and Ethernet Bridging -- 4.5.3 Ethernet Link Aggregation -- 4.5.4 VLANs -- 4.5.5 Class of Service -- 4.5.6 VLAN Example -- 4.5.7 Ethernet OAM -- 4.5.8 Provider Bridging -- 4.5.9 Provider Backbone Bridging -- 4.5.10 MPLS Based Carrier Ethernet -- 4.6 IP and Transport Layer Protocols -- 4.6.1 IP -- 4.6.2 IP Addresses and Address Assignment -- 4.6.3 Forwarding -- 4.6.4 Routing Protocols -- 4.6.5 Differentiated Services -- 4.6.6 Address Resolution Protocol -- 4.6.7 ICMP -- 4.6.8 UDP -- 4.6.9 RTP -- 4.6.10 TCP -- 4.6.11 SCTP -- 4.6.12 IPv6 -- 4.7 MPLS/IP Applications -- 4.7.1 MPLS Architecture -- 4.7.2 Label Distribution Protocol -- 4.7.3 BGP -- 4.7.4 MPLS Ping -- 4.7.5 MPLS L3 VPN and MP-BGP -- 4.7.6 Pseudowire Emulation Edge to Edge -- 4.7.7 MPLS L2 VPN-VPLS -- 4.7.8 MPLS-TE -- 4.7.9 MPLS-TP -- 4.8 Summary -- References -- 5 Backhaul Transport Technologies -- 5.1 Transport Systems -- 5.1.1 OSI-Model -- 5.1.2 Access Schemes -- 5.1.3 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) -- 5.1.4 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) -- 5.1.5 SDH Protection -- 5.1.6 Optical Transport Hierarchy (OTH) -- 5.1.7 Next Generation SDH (NG-SDH) -- 5.1.8 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) -- 5.1.9 Hybrid TDM/Packet -- 5.2 Wireless Backhaul Technology.

5.2.1 Radio Wave Propagation -- 5.2.2 Frequencies and Capacities -- 5.2.3 Network Topologies -- 5.2.4 Availability and Resiliency -- 5.2.5 Performance -- 5.2.6 Other Wireless Technologies -- 5.3 Wire-Line Backhaul Technology -- 5.3.1 DSL Technologies -- 5.3.2 Optical Technology -- 5.3.3 Ethernet Interfaces -- 5.3.4 Ethernet in the First Mile -- 5.3.5 DOCSIS -- 5.4 Aggregation and Backbone Tiers -- 5.5 Leased Line Services for Mobile Backhaul -- 5.5.1 Ethernet Services and SLA's (MEF) -- 5.5.2 Leased Ethernet Service Offering -- 5.5.3 IP as a Backhaul Service -- 5.6 Summary -- References -- PART II: MOBILE BACKHAUL FUNCTIONALITY -- 6 Synchronization -- 6.1 Cellular Networks Synchronization Requirements -- 6.1.1 Frequency Accuracy -- 6.1.2 Time Accuracy -- 6.2 Frequency Synchronization in TDM Networks -- 6.2.1 Synchronization Architecture in TDM Networks -- 6.2.2 PDH -- 6.2.3 SDH/SONET -- 6.2.4 ATM -- 6.2.5 OTN -- 6.3 Frequency Synchronization in Packet Networks -- 6.3.1 ACR (Adaptive Clock Recovery) -- 6.3.2 NTP -- 6.3.3 PTP Protocol -- 6.3.4 ITU PTP Telecom Profile for Frequency Synchronization -- 6.3.5 Synchronous Ethernet -- 6.3.6 Chaining Different Synchronization Technologies -- 6.3.7 Summary of ITU Recommendations Related to Frequency Synchronization in Packet Networks -- 6.3.8 TICTOC -- 6.4 Synchronization Metrics for TDM and Synchronous Ethernet -- 6.4.1 Stability Metric MTIE -- 6.4.2 Relationship between TDM Wander Specification and Base Station Clock Accuracy -- 6.4.3 TDEV -- 6.5 Packet Synchronization Fundamentals and Metrics -- 6.5.1 The Principles of Packet Timing for Frequency Synchronization -- 6.5.2 Packet Delay Metrics for Frequency Synchronization -- 6.5.3 Two-way Messaging -- 6.5.4 Delay Jumps -- 6.5.5 Testing Packet Timing Slaves -- 6.6 Rules of Thumb for Packet Timing Network Implementation -- 6.7 Time Synchronization.

6.7.1 GNSS Systems -- 6.7.2 PTP for Time Synchronization -- 6.8 Conclusions -- References -- 7 Resilience -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 Restoration and Protection -- 7.1.2 Recovery -- 7.1.3 Availability -- 7.1.4 MTBF and MTTR -- 7.1.5 Increasing Availability -- 7.1.6 Network Failures -- 7.1.7 Human Errors -- 7.2 Native Ethernet and Resilience -- 7.2.1 Ethernet Bridging -- 7.2.2 Spanning Tree Operation -- 7.3 Carrier Grade Ethernet -- 7.3.1 Carrier Ethernet -- 7.3.2 MEF Services -- 7.3.3 Ethernet OAM -- 7.4 IP Layer -- 7.4.1 VRRP -- 7.4.2 Load Sharing -- 7.4.3 Routing Protocols -- 7.4.4 OSPF -- 7.4.5 BFD -- 7.4.6 Further Topics -- 7.4.7 Loop Free Alternates -- 7.5 MPLS Resilience -- 7.5.1 Label Allocation -- 7.5.2 LDP Sessions -- 7.5.3 IP MPLS VPN -- 7.5.4 VPLS -- 7.5.5 MPLS TE and Fast Reroute -- 7.5.6 MPLS OAM -- 7.5.7 MPLS-TP -- 7.5.8 GMPLS Control Plane -- 7.6 Resilience in the BTS Access -- 7.6.1 BTS and BTS Site -- 7.6.2 BTS Access -- 7.6.3 IP Addressing -- 7.6.4 Active-Passive Ports -- 7.6.5 IP Load Sharing -- 7.6.6 Ethernet Link Aggregation -- 7.6.7 OSPF in the Access -- 7.6.8 Static Routes -- 7.6.9 First Hop Gateway Redundancy -- 7.6.10 Microwave Access Links -- 7.6.11 Attachment to a MEF Service -- 7.7 Resilience in the Controllers and the Core Interface -- 7.7.1 BSC and RNC and Their Site Solutions -- 7.7.2 VRRP Example -- 7.7.3 Signaling Resilience with SCTP Multihoming -- 7.7.4 Use of Multiple Core Network Nodes -- 7.8 Summary -- References -- 8 QoS -- 8.1 End User Service, Radio Network Layers and the Transport Layer Service -- 8.1.1 Transport Layer Service -- 8.1.2 End-to-End QoS -- 8.1.3 Need for Backhaul QoS -- 8.1.4 QoS Alignment with Radio and Backhaul -- 8.2 TCP and UDP as End User Transport Layer Protocols -- 8.2.1 UDP -- 8.2.2 TCP -- 8.2.3 TCP Congestion Control -- 8.2.4 TCP Over Wireless.

8.3 DSCP, Traffic Class, and Priority Bits -- 8.3.1 Differentiated Services -- 8.3.2 IPv6 -- 8.3.3 Per-Hop Behaviours -- 8.3.4 Recommended Use of DSCPs and Treatment Aggregates -- 8.3.5 DSCP in IP Tunnels -- 8.3.6 Use of DSCPs for Mobile Backhaul -- 8.3.7 MPLS Traffic Class -- 8.3.8 IEEE802.1Q Priority Bits -- 8.3.9 VLANs -- 8.3.10 QoS with MEF Services -- 8.4 Ingress and Egress Functions -- 8.4.1 Ingress Classification and Policing -- 8.4.2 Single-Rate Two Color Policer -- 8.4.3 Two-Rate Three Color Policer -- 8.4.4 Egress Scheduling, Queue Management, and Shaping -- 8.4.5 Strict Priority Scheduler -- 8.4.6 Weighted Round Robin Scheduler -- 8.4.7 Weighted Fair Queuing -- 8.4.8 Combined Schedulers -- 8.4.9 Buffering -- 8.4.10 Tail Drop -- 8.4.11 Active Queue Management -- 8.4.12 Shaping -- 8.5 2G -- 8.5.1 Native PCM-Based Abis -- 8.5.2 Abis Over Pseudowire -- 8.5.3 Abis Example -- 8.6 3G/HSPA -- 8.6.1 Bearers and Their Attributes -- 8.6.2 Iub -- 8.6.3 Iub Example -- 8.6.4 Congestion Control in MBH -- 8.6.5 Congestion Control in HSPA Systems -- 8.6.6 HSDPA Congestion Control -- 8.6.7 HSUPA Congestion Control -- 8.6.8 Co-existence of Radio Networks -- 8.7 LTE -- 8.7.1 QoS Architecture -- 8.7.2 Packet Flows and Bearers -- 8.7.3 QoS Parameters -- 8.7.4 Admission Control -- 8.7.5 S1 Interface -- 8.7.6 S1 Example -- 8.8 Summary -- References -- 9 Security -- 9.1 Security in 3GPP Mobile Networks -- 9.1.1 Network Domain Security -- 9.1.2 2G -- 9.1.3 Abis, A and Gb -- 9.1.4 3G -- 9.1.5 Iub -- 9.1.6 Iu-cs, Iu-ps and Iur Interfaces -- 9.1.7 LTE -- 9.1.8 S1 and X2 Interfaces -- 9.1.9 Management Traffic -- 9.2 Protection of the Backhaul -- 9.2.1 Cryptographic Protection Compared to Other Protection -- 9.2.2 Leased Service and A Self-Deployed Backhaul -- 9.2.3 Traffic Separation -- 9.2.4 Ethernet Services -- 9.2.5 IEEE 802.1x and IEEE802.1ae -- 9.2.6 MEF.

9.3 IP Layer Protection.