Biosolids Applied to Land -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Abbreviations -- Summary -- THE COMMITTEE'S TASK -- MAJOR FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Overarching Findings -- Overarching Recommendations -- Health Effects -- Chemical and Pathogen Standards -- Chemical Standards -- Pathogen Standards -- 1 Introduction -- BIOSOLIDS -- Definitions and Use -- Pollutant Standards -- Earlier NRC Review -- HUMAN HEALTH AND RISK-ASSESSMENT ISSUES -- THE COMMITTEE'S TASK -- THE COMMITTEE'S APPROACH -- REPORT ORGANIZATION -- REFERENCES -- 2 Biosolids Management -- FEDERAL BIOSOLIDS REGULATIONS AND CURRENT STATE OF PROGRAM -- History -- Federal Policy -- Proposed Regulation -- Final Regulations -- Pollutant Concentrations -- Pathogen Control -- Class A Pathogen Requirements -- Class B Pathogen Requirements -- Reduction of Vector Attraction -- Treatment Design Standards -- Rule Modifications -- Revision of Regulations -- Public Issue Forums -- EPA Resources -- State Programs -- EUROPEAN BIOSOLIDS MANAGEMENT -- PATHOGEN ISSUES AND TREATMENT CONTROLS -- PATHOGEN EQUIVALENCY COMMITTEE -- IMPLEMENTATION AND END-USE PRACTICES -- Overview -- Management Practices -- End-Use Practices -- CHARACTERIZATION OF BIOSOLIDS -- COMPLIANCE ASSISTANCE AND ENFORCEMENT -- FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 3 Epidemiological Evidence of Health Effects Associated with Biosolids Production and Application -- DESCRIPTION OF THE LITERATURE -- Exposed Populations -- Observed Health Outcomes -- Assessment of Causality -- FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Response Studies -- Preplanned Studies -- REFERENCES -- 4 Advances in Risk Assessment Since the Establishment of the Part 503 Rule -- THE RISK-ASSESSMENT PROCESS -- Components of the Risk-Analysis Process -- Confronting Uncertainty and Variability -- NEW APPROACHES AND CONSIDERATIONS IN RISK ASSESSMENT.

Recent Reports Define New Directions in Risk Assessment -- Advances in Hazard Identification -- Advances in the Dose-Response Characterization Process -- Changes in Dose-Response Methods -- EPA's Proposed 1996 Carcinogen Risk-Assessment Guidelines -- Time-to-Tumor Models -- Use of Subjective Statistics: Bayesian Methods -- Use of Meta-Analysis in Place of Single-Species Data Sets -- Assessment of Mixtures -- Advances in the Exposure Characterization Process -- Increased Focus on Indoor and Residential Environments -- Methods for Monitoring Biological Agents in Exposure Media -- Explicit Treatment of Uncertainty and Variability -- Multimedia and Multiple-Pathway Exposure Assessments -- Biological Markers -- Challenges to the Risk-Characterization Process for Biosolids -- Characterizing Exposures to Children as a Subpopulation -- Participation of the Affected Populations -- Link Between Risk Assessment and Management of Land-Application Sites -- CHANGES IN RISK-ASSESSMENT APPROACHES IN EPA OFFICES -- Office of Research and Development (ORD) -- National Center for Environmental Assessment (NCEA) -- Exposure Assessment -- Cancer Risk Assessment -- National Exposure Research Laboratory (NERL) -- National Exposure Surveys -- Pharmacokinetic Models and Biomarker Data -- Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) -- Radiation Protection Division -- Indoor Air-Quality Programs -- Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) -- Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) -- Office of Solid Waste (OSW) -- Office of Underground Storage Tanks (OUST) -- Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (OERR) -- Office of Water (OW) -- Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances (OPPTS) -- FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 5 Evaluation of EPA's Approach to Setting Chemical Standards -- HAZARD ASSESSMENT AND CHEMICAL SELECTION.

Round 1 Pollutant Selection -- Round 2 Pollutant Selection -- Limitations of the Assessment and Selection Process -- Survey Data -- Additional Chemicals of Potential Concern -- Data Gaps -- EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT -- Summary of Approach Used to Select Exposure Pathways -- Description of Conceptual Model and Exposure Scenario Approach -- Evaluation of Exposure Models and Parameters -- HEI Receptor Versus RME Receptor -- Determination of Chemical Concentrations in Exposure Media -- Mass Balance and Distribution of Contaminants -- Soil Concentrations -- Plant Concentrations -- Livestock Concentrations -- Air Concentrations -- Surface-Water Concentrations -- Groundwater Concentrations -- Human Intake Parameters -- DERIVATION OF RISK-BASED STANDARDS -- Toxicity Assessment -- Calculations -- Target Risks -- INORGANIC CHEMICALS -- Bioavailability to Humans -- Metal Speciation and Availability -- Regulated Metals and Metalloids -- Arsenic -- Cadmium -- Lead -- Mercury -- Other Regulated Inorganic Chemicals -- ORGANIC CHEMICALS -- Environmental Fate and Transport -- Dioxin and Dioxin-like Chemicals -- Other Organic Chemicals -- Brominated Diphenyl Ethers -- Surfactants -- Chlorinated Paraffins -- Nitro and Polycyclic Musks -- Pharmaceuticals -- Volatile Emissions and Odorants -- FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 6 Evaluation of EPA's Approach to Setting Pathogen Standards -- PATHOGEN STANDARDS -- Class B Requirements -- Treatment Requirements -- Site Restrictions -- Class A Requirements -- EPA's Approach to Assessing Microbial Risks -- Evaluation of Operational Standards -- Techniques for Reducing Pathogens -- Reliability of Processes -- Reliability of Use Controls -- PATHOGENS IN BIOSOLIDS -- Viral Pathogens -- Caliciviruses -- Adenoviruses -- Hepatitis A and E Viruses -- Astroviruses and Rotaviruses -- Bacterial Pathogens -- Escherichia coli 0157:H7.

Listeria montocytogenes -- Helicobacter pylori -- Legionella spp. -- Staphylococcus aureus -- Protozoan Pathogens -- Helminths -- Prions -- Rationale for Selecting Emerging Organisms -- Role of Indicator Organisms -- EXPOSURE TO PATHOGENS -- Air -- Soil -- Water -- Vectors -- Regional Differences -- HOST FACTORS -- Concomitant Exposures -- Genetic Factors -- Acquired Immunity -- EXPOSURE TO WORKERS -- ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE -- PATHOGEN RISK ASSESSMENT -- Drinking Water -- Food and Air -- Applicability of Available Approaches to Biosolids Standards -- Potential Limitations in Sampling and Detection Methods -- Bacteria -- Viruses -- Protozoa and Helminths -- Potential Limitations in Dose-Response Information -- Exposure Routes Other Than Ingestion -- Population Level Modeling -- FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 7 Integration of Chemical and Pathogen Risk Assessment -- AGENT-BY-AGENT RISK ASSESSMENT -- SECONDARY TRANSMISSION -- COMPLEX MIXTURES -- FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- Glossary -- Appendix A BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ON THE COMMITTEE ON TOXICANTS AND PATHOGENS IN BIOSOLIDS… -- Appendix B PARTICIPANTS AT PUBLIC SESSIONS.