FOOD COMPONENTS TO ENHANCE PERFORMANCE -- Copyright -- Preface -- FOCUS OF THE REPORT -- HISTORY OF THE COMMITTEE -- COMMITTEE TASK AND PROCEDURES -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Contents -- PART I Committee Summary and Recommendations -- 1 Introduction and Background -- THE COMMITTEE'S TASK -- Terms Used in This Report -- Report Organization -- MILITARY RESEARCH ON NUTRITIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF SOLDIER PERFORMANCE -- History and Current Research -- Design Issues for Rations -- Biochemical Strategies and Issues -- PERFORMANCE ISSUES AND MEASUREMENT APPROPRIATE TO THE MILITARY -- Physical Performance -- Mental Performance -- PROVIDING FOOD IN THE CONTEXT OF MILITARY COMBAT SETTINGS -- STRESS AND NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS -- The Central Nervous System -- Endocrine System Responses to Stress -- Immune System Responses to Stress -- Metabolic Responses to Stress and Activity -- POTENTIAL PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING FOOD COMPONENTS -- Physical Performance Enhancement -- Food Components that May Enhance Mental Performance -- Nutrients on Neurotransmitter release -- SPECIFIC FOOD COMPONENTS -- Tyrosine -- Carbohydrates -- Glucose -- Structured Lipids -- Choline -- Functions of Choline -- Dietary Choline and Choline Deficiency -- Potential Areas of Clinical and Military Interest -- Caffeine -- Carnitine -- SAFETY AND REGULATORY ASPECTS OF POTENTIAL PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING FOOD COMPONENTS -- Safety of Amino Acids -- Regulation of Food Components by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration1 -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 2 Conclusions and Recommendations -- CONCLUSIONS -- GENERAL CONCLUSIONS -- General Concepts of Performance Enhancement -- Food Components or Nutrients that Offer Potential to Enhance Performance -- Other Food Components of Theoretical Importance but Low Probability of Improving Performance -- ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS POSED TO THE COMMITTEE.

RECOMMENDATIONS -- General -- Recommendations Regarding Food Components Proposed by the Army -- Specific Recommendations -- Other Areas that Offer Research Potential -- AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH -- REFERENCES -- PART II Background and Introduction to the Topic -- 3 Nutritional Enhancement of Soldier Performance at the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environment... -- INTRODUCTION -- METHODOLOGY -- MACRONUTRIENT AND PERFORMANCE RESEARCH AT USARIEM -- Carbohydrate and Work at High Altitude -- Carbohydrate and Thermoregulation During Cold Exposure -- Carbohydrate and Work in the Heat -- Carbohydrate and Load-Bearing Work and Marksmanship -- NUTRITIONAL PHARMACOLOGY (CAFFEINE RESEARCH) -- NUTRITIONAL NEUROTRANSMITTER RESEARCH (TYROSINE) -- CURRENT USARIEM NUTRITION AND PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT RESEARCH -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 4 Optimizing the Design of Combat Rations -- INTRODUCTION -- OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS -- SELF-HEATING INDIVIDUAL MEAL MODULE -- Component Preservation -- Self-Heating -- Consumer Acceptance -- NUTRITIONAL ENGINEERING FOR PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT -- Basic Performance-Nutrient Concept -- Goal Programming -- Experimental Diets -- Tailored-Ration System -- SUMMARY: THE CHALLENGE -- REFERENCES -- 5 Biochemical Strategies for Ration Design: Concerns of Bioavailability -- INTRODUCTION -- PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR RATION DESIGN -- BIOCHEMICAL STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLED DELIVERY OF NUTRIENTS -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- DISCUSSION -- PART III Military Issues -- 6 Evaluation of Physical Performance -- INTRODUCTION -- PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE FACTORS AND THEIR EVALUATION -- Physiological Factors -- Metabolic Capacity -- Neuromotor Control -- Substrates and Tissue Homeostasis -- Assessment of Submaximal Endurance Capacity -- Laboratory Tests of Aerobic Endurance -- Field Task Tests of Aerobic Endurance.

RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 7 The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Performance During Continuous Combat Operations -- INTRODUCTION -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 8 The Role of Context in Behavioral Effects of Foods -- INTRODUCTION -- DETERMINING A BASELINE -- EXPECTANCY -- CONTROLLING THE FOOD, STIMULUS, AND TREATMENT -- PEOPLE -- Individual Differences -- Clinical Disorders -- Social Influence -- CHEMICALS, FOODS, AND MEALS -- PERFORMANCE AND MOOD OUTCOMES -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- DISCUSSION -- PART IV Stress and Nutrient Interactions: Metabolic Consequences -- 9 Stress and Monoamine Neurons in the Brain -- INTRODUCTION -- SYNTHESIS OF MONOAMINES IN THE BRAIN -- Dopamine and Norepinephrine -- Serotonin -- STRESS AND BRAIN NOREPINEPHRINE -- Acute Stress -- Chronic Stress -- STRESS AND BRAIN DOPAMINE -- Acute Stress -- Chronic Stress -- STRESS AND BRAIN SEROTONIN -- Acute Stress -- Chronic Stress -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- DISCUSSION -- 10 Endocrine and Immune System Responses to Stress -- INTRODUCTION -- HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES -- Contributions of Hans Selye -- Studies of Endogenous Pyrogen -- Studies of Infectious Stress -- Studies in Ranger Trainees -- Immunological Progress -- ENDOCRINE RESPONSES TO STRESS -- Catecholamines -- Adrenocortical Responses -- CRF and ACTH -- Adrenal Glucocorticoids -- ADRENAL MINERALOCORTICOIDS -- Growth Hormone -- Thyroidal Responses -- Other Pituitary Hormones -- Testosterone -- Pancreatic Hormones -- Intestinal Hormones -- Other Hormones and Neuroendocrines -- IMMUNE SYSTEM RESPONSES TO STRESS -- Changes in Lymphoid Cells and Tissues -- Lymphocyte Counts in Stress -- Humoral Immunity and Stress -- Cell-Mediated Immunity and Stress -- Lymphocyte Responses to Mitogens -- Natural Killer Cell Activity -- Cytokine Responses to Stress.

Microbicidal and Tumoricidal Effects of NO -- The Immunological Role of Arginine -- The Acute Phase Reaction -- Interleukin-1 -- Tumor Necrosis Factor -- Interleukin-6 -- Potential Importance of Stress Proteins -- Military Aspects of the Acute-Phase Reaction -- Malnutrition and Immune System Dysfunctions -- Nutritional Support for the Immune System -- HORMONAL AND IMMUNOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS DURING STRESS -- Hormonal Effects on Immune System Functions -- CONCLUSIONS -- RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 11 The Metabolic Responses to Stress and Physical Activity -- INTRODUCTION -- UNDERLYING CONCEPTS -- THE FOCUS ON FUEL METABOLISM -- Metabolic Fuel Homeostasis During Physical Exercise -- Fuel Homeostasis Under Baseline Conditions -- Fuel Homeostasis During Exercise -- Levels of Metabolic Integration During Exercise -- FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FUEL UTILIZATION DURING EXERCISE -- BICYCLE ERGOMETER STUDIES -- ENDOCRINE INTERACTIONS -- INFORMATION DERIVED USING THE PANCREATIC CLAMP TECHNIQUE -- INFORMATION FROM OTHER ANIMAL MODELS -- INTERPRETATIONS OF THE METABOLIC DATA -- SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- PART V Potential Performance-Enhancing Food Components -- 12 Food Components That May Optimize Physical Performance: An Overview -- INTRODUCTION -- ACTIONS OF SPECIFIC FOODS AND DERIVATIVES OF FOOD PRODUCTS -- Ergogenic Aids That Act as Central or Peripheral Nervous System Stimulants -- Ergogenic Aids That Increase the Stored Amount or Availability of a Limiting Substrate -- Ergogenic Aids That Act as a Supplemental Fuel Source or Reduce Reliance on a Limiting Fuel Store -- Ergogenic Aids That Reduce or Neutralize Metabolic By-Products -- Ergogenic Aids That Enhance Recovery -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- 13 Effects of Nutrients on Neurotransmitter Release1 -- INTRODUCTION.

FOOD CONSUMPTION, TRYPTOPHAN AVAILABILITY, AND BRAIN SEROTONIN SYNTHESIS -- BRAIN SEROTONIN, NUTRIENT CHOICE, AND CARBOHYDRATE CRAVING -- UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES WILL NUTRIENT INTAKE AFFECT NEUROTRANSMISSION? -- TYROSINE EFFECT ON DOPAMINE AND NOREPINEPHRINE SYNTHESIS -- EFFECTS OF CHOLINE ON SYNTHESIS OF ACETYLCHOLINE AND PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- DISCUSSION -- 14 Performance-Enhancing Effects of Protein and Amino Acids -- INTRODUCTION -- EFFECT OF DIETARY PROTEIN: LONG-TERM CONSIDERATIONS -- EFFECT OF DIETARY PROTEIN: SHORT-TERM CONSIDERATIONS -- ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL AAS OR MIXTURES OF AAS -- ROLE OF DIET IN MODULATING RESPONSE TO AA SUPPLEMENTATION -- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- DISCUSSION -- 15 Tyrosine and Stress: Human and Animal Studies -- INTRODUCTION -- BACKGROUND -- Precursor Coupling -- Catecholamines and Stress -- Acute Behavioral Consequences of Combat -- TYROSINE AND ACUTE STRESS: STUDIES IN ANIMALS -- TYROSINE AND ACUTE STRESS: STUDIES IN HUMANS -- Hypobaric Hypoxia -- Acute Cardiovascular Stress -- CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- DISCUSSION -- 16 Tyrosine and Glucose Modulation of Cognitive Deficits Resulting from Cold Stress -- INTRODUCTION -- COLD STRESS AND WORKING MEMORY -- TYROSINE EFFECTS ON COLD-INDUCED MEMORY IMPAIRMENT -- Cold-Induced Amnesia as a Stress Effect -- Initial Studies with Tyrosine -- Tyrosine Studies During Field Operations in the Cold -- The Effects of Tyrosine on Cold-Induced Impairment in Timing -- Conclusions and Recommendations Regarding the Use of Tyrosine -- Situations in Which Tyrosine is Less Effective -- Tyrosine and Chronic Stress -- Conditions in Which Tyrosine Would Be Contraindicated -- GLUCOSE EFFECTS ON COLD-INDUCED MEMORY IMPAIRMENT -- Mechanisms of Action of Glucose on Working Memory.

Conclusions and Recommendations Regarding Glucose as a Cognition Enhancer.