Ecological Risks -- Copyright -- EDITORS' NOTE -- PREFACE -- Contents -- OVERVIEW -- Assessment and Management of Ecological Risks -- IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS FOR HUMANS -- DEFINITIONS -- Ecosystems -- Ecological Risk -- Ecological Risk Assessment -- AN ILLUSTRATION OF CONFLICTS BETWEEN DESIRABLE GOALS IN SOCIETY -- CONTRASTS AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN POLAND AND THE UNITED STATES -- OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK -- OUR HOPE FOR THE FUTURE -- References -- Executive Summary -- OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS -- ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS -- HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT -- Concepts in Stress Ecology -- Air Pollution Impacts -- Monitoring Ecological Stresses and Effects -- AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY -- IMPACTS ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES -- SYNTHESIS AND INTEGRATION -- ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS -- Evaluating Ecological Impacts: A Conceptual Framework -- A TYPOLOGY OF CONSEQUENCES OF CHANGE -- ISSUES IN EVALUATING CHANGES -- EVALUATING FUTURE CONSEQUENCES -- ECOLOGICAL VALUES AND OTHER VALUES -- FROM CONCEPT TO PRACTICE -- RELATED READINGS -- The Relationship Between Strategies of Social Development and Environmental Protection -- THE EXISTING PARADIGM -- A NEW ANTHROPOCENTRIC PARADIGM: HUMAN HEALTH AND QUALITY OF LIFE -- THE ECOLOGICAL PARADIGM -- ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT -- CONCLUSION -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Environmental Protection as an Element of International Economic Cooperation in Poland -- GROWTH: REDOUBLING EFFORT OR RETHINKING DIRECTION? -- THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT -- INVESTMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT -- THE COSTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION -- THE ECONOMIC BIND -- POLICY EXPLORATIONS -- Energy -- Transportation -- Housing -- Agriculture -- Food Processing -- Pollution Control Technology -- PROSPECTS -- References.

The Role of Ecological Risk Assessment in Environmental Decision Making -- PREDICTIVE ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL RISKS -- ECOTOXICOLOGY: THE PRACTICE OF RISK ASSESSMENTS -- The Toxic Substances Control Act -- Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) -- CONCLUSION -- References -- HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT -- Characterizing Ecosystem Responses to Stress -- ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT -- ECOLOGICAL RISK MANAGEMENT: REGULATORY ENDPOINTS -- ECOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS -- Species-level Endpoints: Primary -- Species-level Endpoints: Secondary -- Species-level Endpoints: Ecological Role -- Community-level Endpoints -- Ecosystem-level Endpoints -- DEFINING ECOSYSTEM RESPONSES TO STRESS -- Frequency and Novelty of Stress -- Time Scale of Stress -- Intensity of Stress -- Internal Stress Protection -- Summary -- MEASURING ECOSYSTEM RESPONSES TO STRESS -- Resistance and Stability -- Sensitivity -- Recovery and Resilience -- Summary -- SELECTION OF INDICATORS -- Purposes of Indicators -- Intrinsic Importance -- Early Warning -- Reliability/Sensitivity -- Process/Function -- Criteria for Selection of Indicators -- Sensitivity -- Rapidity of Response -- Specificity -- Ease/Economy of Monitoring -- Relevance -- SUMMARY -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Measuring Function and Disfunction in Ecosystems -- ECOSYSTEMS: DEFINITION AND FUNCTION -- NATURAL INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS -- ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS -- Irrigation -- Drainage -- Effect of Industrial Emissions on Grassland and Forest Ecosystems -- STATUS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN POLAND -- EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEMS -- References -- Air Pollution Impacts on Forests in North America -- EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON FORESTS: CASE STUDIES -- San Bernardino Mountains -- Eastern White Pine -- High-Elevation Red Spruce -- Southern Pines -- RECENT FINDINGS AND UNCERTAINTIES.

Western Conifers -- Spruce-Fir -- Southern Pines -- CONCLUSION -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Air Pollution and Forest Health in Central Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic -- AIR POLLUTION -- FORESTS AND FOREST INJURY IN CENTRAL EUROPE -- SUMMARY -- References -- Impacts of Air Pollution on Agriculture in North America -- EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS OTHER THAN OZONE ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY -- Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) -- Acidic Deposition -- Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) -- EFFECTS OF OZONE ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY -- Symptomatology -- Physiological and Biochemical Effects -- Factors Affecting Plant Response -- Genetic -- Biological -- Environmental -- Pollutant Interactions -- Growth, Biomass, and Yield Effects -- CROP YIELD RESPONSES TO OZONE UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS: A CASE STUDY OF THE NCLAN PROGRAM -- METHODOLOGY FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTANTS SUCH AS OZONE ON CROPS -- The Needs of an Art Assessment Program -- Ozone Functions for Use in Crop Loss Assessments -- Interpolations of Ozone Data to a County Level -- Crop Census -- Analysis of Crop Yield Reductions -- The Economic Effects of Ozone on Agriculture -- CONCLUSIONS -- Summary of Current Knowledge on the Effects of Ozone (and Other Air Pollutants) -- Areas of Uncertainty in Assessing the Effects of Air Pollutants on Crop Production -- References -- Impacts of Air Pollution on Agriculture and Horticulture in Poland -- ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION -- AGRICULTURE AND PLANT PRODUCTION -- THE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL PLANTS: TWO CASE STUDIES -- RESULTS OF THE CASE STUDIES -- Agriculture -- Horticulture -- CONCLUSION -- References -- Distribution and Movement of Selected Elements in Poland Using Pine Needle Analysis -- SAMPLING RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -- Sulfur -- Cadmium -- Lead -- Zinc -- CONCLUSION -- References.

Long-Term Ecological Monitoring in the National Parks of Poland -- MATERIALS AND METHODS -- RESULTS -- DISCUSSION -- MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS -- References -- AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS -- Ecological Guidelines for Management of Rural Areas in Poland -- ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS IN RURAL AREAS OF POLAND -- Acid Deposition -- Air Pollution -- Groundwater Degradation -- Water Shortages -- Soil Erosion -- NEED FOR ECOLOGICAL GUIDELINES FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT -- ECOLOGICAL GUIDELINES FOR CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS IN RURAL AREAS -- MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE -- OPTIMIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Ecological Problems Associated With Agricultural Development: Some Examples in the United States -- AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ISSUES -- NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURE ON THE ENVIRONMENT -- Agricultural Runoff -- Soil Erosion -- Soil Sedimentation -- METHODS FOR REDUCING SOIL EROSION AND RUNOFFS -- Idling of Highly Erodible Marginal Lands -- Erosion Control Practices -- CHEMICAL CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES -- Fertilizers -- Pesticides -- Salinity and Heavy Metals -- Groundwater Contamination -- REDUCING CHEMICAL DEPENDENCE -- PROSPECTS -- References -- IMPACTS ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- Assessment of the Trophic Impact on the Lake Environment in Poland: a Proposal and Case Study -- AIMS AND CONSTRAINTS OF IMPACT ASSESSMENT -- RATE OF TROPHIC IMPACT AND THE ROLE OF THE WATERSHED IN SUPPLYING AND TRANSPORTING NUTRIENTS -- ASSESSMENT OF NATURAL RESISTANCE OF LAKES TO TROPHIC IMPACT -- THE ECOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF LAKES TO TROPHIC IMPACT -- ASSESSMENT OF TROPHIC IMPACT ON LAKES IN THE MASURIAN LANDSCAPE PROTECTED AREA AND SOME PROPOSALS FOR THEIR PROTECTION -- CONCLUSION -- References.

Aquatic Research and Water Quality Trends in the United States and Poland -- ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH -- TRENDS IN WATER QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES -- Nutrients -- Toxic Chemicals -- TRENDS IN WATER QUALITY IN POLAND -- References -- River Water Quality Assessment and Management in Poland -- BACKGROUND: WATER RESOURCES AND WATER DEMANDS -- LEGISLATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS -- WATER-QUALITY SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM -- COMPUTERIZED DATA ANALYSIS -- WATER-QUALITY INDEX -- MATHEMATICAL SIMULATION AND MANAGEMENT MODELS -- WATER-QUALITY MANAGEMENT SUMMARY -- CONCLUSION -- References -- ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT -- Environmental Policy in Eastern Europe -- DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY -- Politics -- Legislation -- Environmental Management -- Economics -- Foreign Policy -- Education and Scientific Research -- Social Movements -- CONCLUSION -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Acid Deposition: A Case Study of Scientific Uncertainty And International Decision Making -- SCIENCE, POLITICS, AND RESEARCH -- WHEN TO ACT: SCIENCE VERSUS POLICY -- MAJOR FEATURES OF THE NAPAP RESEARCH PROGRAM -- Aquatic Effects -- Forest Effects -- Emissions -- Emission/Deposition Relationships -- NAPAP INTERIM ASSESSMENT -- SUMMARY -- References -- Diagnosis of Environmental Protection Problems in Poland -- AIR QUALITY -- WATER QUALITY -- CONDITION OF LAND -- CONSERVATION OF NATURE -- THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION -- CONCLUSION -- References -- Energy Use and Environmental Consequences in Poland -- ENERGY SUPPLY -- AIR POLLUTION MODELING -- COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS -- CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Reference -- RECOMMENDATIONS -- Recommendations for a Science-Based Program of Ecological Risk Assessment and Environmental Protection -- SYNTHESIS AND INTEGRATION -- Air Pollution Impacts-Monitoring and Trends Analysis -- Ecological Risk Assessment.

Development of Science-Based Policy.