Tanker Spills -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Executive Summary -- RISK OF SPILLS IN U.S. WATERS MAY BE INCREASING -- IMPROVED TANK VESSEL DESIGNS SHOULD REDUCE, BUT WILL NOT ELIMINATE, THE RISK OF OIL SPILLS -- EXISTING TANK VESSEL DESIGN STANDARDS ARE NO LONGER ADEQUATE -- AVAILABLE INFORMATION IS INADEQUATE FOR DECISION MAKING -- DOUBLE HULLS SHOULD REDUCE POLLUTION FROM GROUNDINGS AND COLLISIONS -- MERITS OF OTHER DESIGN ALTERNATIVES FOR NEW VESSELS -- FEWER OPTIONS ARE AVAILABLE FOR BARGES -- DOUBLE HULLS NEED NOT INCREASE INCIDENCE OF FIRES OR EXPLOSIONS, IMPAIR POST-ACCIDENT STABILITY, OR… -- PERSONNEL HAZARDS DIFFER WITH VARIOUS DESIGNS, BUT ARE VERY DIFFICULT TO EVALUATE -- EXISTING VESSELS WILL COMPRISE THE MAJORITY OF THE FLEET SERVING THE UNITED STATES FOR MANY YEARS -- A COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM SHOULD BE MOUNTED IN THE UNITED STATES -- NOTE -- 1-Introduction -- THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM -- Tanker Traffic in U.S. Waters Is Heavy and Is Increasing -- Traffic Is Heaviest from Alaska to the West Coast and Along the Gulf of Mexico and for Imports to the East Coast -- Intercoastal and Intracoastal Activity Is a Large Part of U.S. Trade -- The Type and Control of Tank Vessels in U.S. Trade Varies -- Ocean-Going Barges -- Tank Vessel Pollution Accidents Are Diverse -- Most Tanker Casualties Do Not Cause Pollution -- Groundings and Infrequent Large Spills Dominate U.S. Outflow -- Vessel Size and Age May Play a Role in Casualties -- Size of Tanker -- Age -- Safety of Life -- REDUCING THE RISK OF POLLUTION FROM TANK VESSELS -- Background -- Defining Risk -- Is the Existing Risk of Pollution Acceptable? -- SUMMARY -- NOTES -- REFERENCES -- 2-Tank Vessel Design, Operation, and Regulation -- TANK VESSEL DESIGN AND OPERATION -- Tanker Design -- Barge Design -- Tank Vessel Operations -- Lightering -- Economic Considerations.

Safety Considerations -- LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR VESSEL DESIGN AND POLLUTION PREVENTION -- International Legal Requirements -- The Significance of MARPOL -- Implementation of International Law -- Domestic Legal Requirements -- Classification Requirements -- Survey Procedures -- How Requirements Are Implemented in the United States14 -- Coast Guard Responsibilities -- New Construction -- Vessel Maintenance -- SUMMARY -- NOTES -- REFERENCES -- 3-Physical Bases of Phenomena Active in Casualties -- STRUCTURAL AND DYNAMIC ASPECTS -- Momentum Exchange and Energy Dissipation in Collisions and Groundings -- Residual Strength Following Damage -- FIRE AND EXPLOSIONS -- Conditions for Igniting/Sustaining Combustion -- Fires and Explosions Outside of Cargo Tanks -- CORROSION AND FATIGUE -- HYDROSTATIC PRESSURES IN OPPOSITION -- DIFFUSION AND DYNAMICS OF FLUID/VESSEL MOTION -- SUMMARY -- NOTES -- REFERENCES -- 4-Engineering Considerations -- HULL STRENGTH -- Design Loads, Stress Analysis, and Scantling Selection -- Design Margins -- Inspection and Maintenance -- TANK PROPORTIONS, ARRANGEMENTS, AND STABILITY -- Stability Criteria -- Ballast Requirements -- Bulkhead and Ballast Tank Dimensional Considerations -- Segregated Ballast Tank Arrangements -- Stability of Double-Hull Tankers -- SALVAGE CONCERNS RELATED TO SBT TANKERS -- Double Bottoms and Voids in Salvage -- Salvage Procedures -- Bottom and Side Voids in Salvage -- Cargo Systems -- Emergency Cargo Pumping Capability -- Salvage Calculations and Computer Programs -- SAFETY OF LIFE -- Explosions and Fires -- SUMMARY -- NOTES -- REFERENCES -- 5-Design Alternatives -- THE MATRIX -- BARRIERS -- 1. Protectively Located Segregated Ballast (PL/SBT or MARPOL) Tanker -- 2. Double Bottom -- Retrofitting Tankers and Ocean-Going Barges -- 3. Double Sides -- Retrofitting Tankers and Ocean-Going Barges -- 4. Double Hull.

Retrofitting Tankers and Ocean-Going Barges -- 5. Resilient Membrane -- OUTFLOW MANAGEMENT -- 6. Hydrostatically Balanced Loading Concept (passive) -- 7a. Intermediate Oil-Tight Deck (independent tanks) -- 7b. Convertible Tanks -- Summary-Hydrostatic Control Alternatives -- 8a. Mechanically Driven Vacuum (active) -- 8b. Hydrostatically Driven Vacuum (passive) -- 8c. "Imaginary" Double Bottom -- Summary-Vacuum System Alternatives -- 9. Smaller Tanks -- 9a. Service Tank Location -- INCREASED PENETRATION RESISTANCE -- 10. Internal Deflecting Hull -- 11. Grinding Bow -- 12. Unidirectionally Stiffened Hull Structure -- 13. Honeycomb Hull Structure -- 14. High-Yield Steel Bottom Structure -- 15. Concrete Hull Structure -- 16. Ceramic-Clad Outer Hull -- ACCIDENT RESPONSE -- 17. Enhanced Information Processing -- 18. Towing Fittings -- 19. Distressed-Ship Cargo Transfer System -- SUMMARY OF INITIAL TECHNICAL EVALUATION -- ASSESSMENT OF DESIGN ALTERNATIVES APPLICABLE TO BARGES -- Barriers -- Outflow Management -- Increased Penetration Resistance -- Accident Response -- Smaller Offshore Barges and Inland Barges -- POLLUTION CONTROL ANALYSIS OF SELECTED DESIGNS AND DESIGN COMBINATIONS -- General Features of the Tankers -- Probabilistic Ranking of VLCC Tankers -- Results-VLCC Analysis -- Probabilistic Ranking of 40,000 DWT Tankers -- Results-40,000 DWT Tanker Analysis -- Estimated Oil Outflow from a 80,000 DWT Tanker -- The Committee's Overall Conclusions from DnV Analysis -- SUMMARY AND SIGNIFICANCE OF OUTFLOW ESTIMATES -- Outflow Performance Relationships and the Underlying Reasons -- Applicability of Results -- Significance of Results -- NOTES -- REFERENCES -- 6-Benefits and Costs of Design Changes -- THE ANALYTICAL APPROACH -- Identifying the Base Case -- Environmental Damages -- Natural Resource Damage and Recovery.

Placing Dollar Values on the Cost of Spills -- Spill Reduction Analysis -- Cost Analysis: Economic Effects of Design Alternatives -- Methodology -- RESULTS -- Cost-Effectiveness Analysis -- EXPERT JUDGMENT TECHNIQUE -- POSSIBLE DISLOCATIONS TO WORLD SYSTEM OF OIL TRANSPORT -- Changing from Oil to an Alternative Energy Source -- Diversion of Cargo from Tankers to Barges -- Trend to Less-regulated Vessel Sizes -- Lightering, LOOP, and Transshipment in a Foreign Port -- Lightering Outside of U.S. Jurisdiction -- Replacement of Jones Act Movements with Imports -- Creation of a Two-Tier Market -- Extending the Life of Existing Tank Vessels -- SUMMARY -- NOTES -- REFERENCES -- 7-The Need for Research -- RESEARCH COMPLETED, UNDER WAY, OR PLANNED -- Projects Planned -- A NEW FOCUS FOR RESEARCH -- Establishing Performance Standards -- Specific Needs -- Greater Understanding of Structural Behavior -- More Detailed Casualty Databases -- Research on the Influence of Tank Contents -- Models for Residual Strength -- Full-Scale Test to Destruction -- Summary of Research Needs -- RECOMMENDED U.S. RESEARCH STRATEGY -- REFERENCES -- SUMMARY OF REFERENCES -- OTHER REFERENCES--UNPUBLISHED AND INTERNAL -- ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND MATERIAL -- Appendixes -- Appendix A-Marpol 73/78 Annex I* -- Appendix B-Structural Design of Tankers* -- DESIGN LOADS -- Internal/External Liquid Pressure Differential -- Shear Forces -- Hull Girder Longitudinal Bending Moment -- Slamming -- Green Water on Deck -- Liquid Cargo Sloshing -- Thermal Loads -- SCANTLINGS SELECTION -- ENGINEERING ANALYSIS -- Ship Moment -- Ship Motion -- 3-D Global 3-D Finite Element Analysis (FEM) -- 3-D Local Finite Element Analysis (FEM) -- 2-D FEM Local Analysis -- Sloshing Analysis -- Thermal Stress Analysis -- Fatigue and Fracture Mechanic Analysis -- Vibration Analysis.

Appendix C-Large Tanker Structural Survey Experience* -- Appendix D-35,000 DWT Tanker Cargo Capacity and Damage Stability Study -- Protectively Located Ballast Requirements -- Cargo Capacity -- Damage Stability -- Conclusions -- Appendix E-Double Hull Tanker Design* -- DOUBLE BOTTOM HEIGHT REQUIREMENTS -- DOUBLE SIDE TANK WIDTH REQUIREMENTS -- MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY -- COATINGS -- DAMAGE STABILITY CRITERIA -- THE CHEVRON DESIGN -- Appendix F-Comparative Study on Potential Oil Spill in Collision and/or Grounding-Different Tanker Designs -- PREAMBLE -- List Of Contents -- 1. Scope Of Work -- 2. Estimation Of Oil Outflow In Collision And Grounding -- 2.1 Oil Outflow in Collision -- 2.1.1 Basic Assumptions -- 2.1.2 Damage Analysis Procedure -- 2.2 Oil Outflow in Grounding -- 2.2.1 Basic assumptions -- 2.2.2 Damage Analysis Procedure -- 3. PROBABILISTIC RANKING OF VLCC DESIGNS -- 3.1 VLCC Designs Analysed -- 3.1.1 General Features -- 3.1.2 Particulars of the VLCC Designs -- 3.2 Ranking of VLCC Designs -- 3.2.1 Ranking in Collision -- 3.2.2 Ranking in Grounding -- 3.2.3 Combined Ranking-Collision and Grounding -- 3.2.4 Impact of a Vacuum System on Oil Outflow in Grounding -- 3.3 Conclusions and recommendations -- 4. PROBABILISTIC RANKING OF 40,000 DWT TANKERS -- 4.1 The 40,000 dwt Designs Analysed -- 4.1.1 General Features -- 4.1.2 Particulars of 40,000 dwt Tankers -- 4.2 Probabilistic Ranking of 40,000 dwt Tankers -- 4.2.1 Ranking in Collision -- 4.2.2 Ranking in Grounding -- 4.2.3 Combined Ranking -- 4.3 Conclusions and Recommendations -- 5. ESTIMATED OIL OUTFLOW FROM A 80,000 DWT TANKER -- 5.1 Comparison of Performance for VLCCs vs. 40,000 dwt Tankers -- Original VLCC and 40,000 dwt tanker designs - single skin: -- Double side and double bottom designs: -- Double sides and single bottom designs: -- Single side and double bottom designs:.

Intermediate Oil Tight Deck Designs:.