Formulation of Disperse Systems -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 General Introduction -- 1.1 Suspensions -- 1.2 Latexes -- 1.3 Emulsions -- 1.4 Suspoemulsions -- 1.5 Multiple Emulsions -- 1.6 Nanosuspensions -- 1.7 Nanoemulsions -- 1.8 Microemulsions -- 1.9 Pigment and Ink Dispersions -- 1.10 Foams -- References -- Chapter 2 Surfactants Used in Formulation of Dispersions -- 2.1 General Classification of Surface-Active Agents -- 2.1.1 Anionic Surfactants -- 2.1.1.1 Carboxylates -- 2.1.1.2 Sulphates -- 2.1.1.3 Sulphonates -- 2.1.1.4 Phosphate-Containing Anionic Surfactants -- 2.1.2 Cationic Surfactants -- 2.1.3 Amphoteric (Zwitterionic) Surfactants -- 2.1.4 Nonionic Surfactants -- 2.1.4.1 Alcohol Ethoxylates -- 2.1.4.2 Alkyl Phenol Ethoxylates -- 2.1.4.3 Fatty Acid Ethoxylates -- 2.1.4.4 Sorbitan Esters and Their Ethoxylated Derivatives (Spans and Tweens) -- 2.1.4.5 Ethoxylated Fats and Oils -- 2.1.4.6 Amine Ethoxylates -- 2.1.4.7 Amine Oxides -- 2.1.5 Specialty Surfactants -- 2.1.5.1 Fluorocarbon and Silicone Surfactants -- 2.1.5.2 Gemini Surfactants -- 2.1.5.3 Surfactants Derived from Monosaccharides and Polysaccharides -- References -- Chapter 3 Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Solutions and the Process of Micellisation -- 3.1 Thermodynamics of Micellisation -- 3.1.1 Kinetic Aspects -- 3.1.2 Equilibrium Aspects: Thermodynamics of Micellisation -- 3.2 Enthalpy and Entropy of Micellisation -- 3.2.1 Driving Force for Micelle Formation -- 3.2.2 Micellisation in Surfactant Mixtures (Mixed Micelles) -- References -- Chapter 4 Dispersants and Polymeric Surfactants -- 4.1 Solution Properties of Polymeric Surfactants -- 4.2 General Classification of Polymeric Surfactants -- 4.3 Polyelectrolytes -- References.

Chapter 5 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Air/Liquid, Liquid/Liquid, and Solid/Liquid Interfaces -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Air/Liquid (A/L) and Liquid/Liquid (L/L) Interfaces -- 5.3 The Gibbs Adsorption Isotherm -- 5.4 Equation of State Approach -- 5.5 The Langmuir, Szyszkowski, and Frumkin Equations -- 5.6 Interfacial Tension Measurements -- 5.6.1 The Wilhelmy Plate Method -- 5.6.2 The Pendant Drop Method -- 5.6.3 The Du Nouy's Ring Method -- 5.6.4 The Drop Volume (Weight) Method -- 5.6.5 The Spinning Drop Method -- 5.7 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Solid/Liquid (S/L) Interface -- 5.7.1 Adsorption of Ionic Surfactants on Hydrophobic Surfaces -- 5.7.2 Adsorption of Ionic Surfactants on Polar Surfaces -- 5.7.3 Adsorption of Nonionic Surfactants -- References -- Chapter 6 Adsorption of Polymeric Surfactants at the Solid/Liquid Interface -- 6.1 Theories of Polymer Adsorption -- 6.2 Experimental Techniques for Studying Polymeric Surfactant Adsorption -- 6.2.1 Measurement of the Adsorption Isotherm -- 6.2.2 Measurement of the Fraction of Segments, p -- 6.3 Determination of Segment Density Distribution ρ(z) and Adsorbed Layer Thickness δh -- 6.4 Examples of the Adsorption Isotherms of Nonionic Polymeric Surfactants -- 6.4.1 Adsorbed Layer Thickness Results -- 6.4.2 Kinetics of Polymer Adsorption -- References -- Chapter 7 Colloid Stability of Disperse Systems Containing Electrical Double Layers -- 7.1 Origin of Charge on Surfaces -- 7.1.1 Surface Ions -- 7.1.2 Isomorphic Substitution -- 7.2 Structure of the Electrical Double Layer -- 7.2.1 Diffuse Double layer (Gouy and Chapman) -- 7.3 Stern-Grahame Model of the Double Layer -- 7.4 Distinction between Specific and Nonspecific Adsorbed Ions -- 7.5 Electrical Double Layer Repulsion -- 7.6 van der Waals Attraction.

7.7 Total Energy of Interaction -- 7.7.1 Deryaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) Theory -- 7.8 Flocculation of Suspensions -- 7.9 Criteria for Stabilisation of Dispersions with Double Layer Interaction -- References -- Chapter 8 Stability of Disperse Systems Containing Adsorbed Nonionic Surfactants or Polymers: Steric Stabilisation -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Interaction between Particles Containing Adsorbed Nonionic and Polymeric Surfactant Layers (Steric Stabilisation) -- 8.3 Mixing Interaction Gmix -- 8.4 Elastic Interaction Gel -- 8.5 Total Energy of Interaction -- 8.6 Criteria for Effective Steric Stabilisation -- 8.7 Flocculation of Sterically Stabilised Dispersions -- 8.7.1 Weak Flocculation -- 8.7.2 Incipient Flocculation -- 8.7.3 Depletion Flocculation -- References -- Chapter 9 Formulation of Solid/Liquid Dispersions (Suspensions) -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Preparation of Suspensions -- 9.3 Condensation Methods: Nucleation and Growth -- 9.4 Dispersion Methods -- 9.4.1 Wetting of Powders by Liquids -- 9.4.2 Structure of the Solid/Liquid Interface and the Electrical Double Layer -- 9.4.2.1 Electrical Double Layer Repulsion -- 9.4.2.2 van der Waals Attraction -- 9.4.2.3 Total Energy of Interaction -- 9.4.2.4 Criteria for Stabilisation of Suspensions with Double Layer Interaction -- 9.4.2.5 Electrokinetic Phenomena and the Zeta-Potential -- 9.4.2.6 Calculation of the Zeta-Potential -- 9.4.2.7 Measurement of the Zeta-Potential -- 9.4.3 Dispersing Agents for Formulation of Suspensions -- 9.4.4 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Solid/Liquid Interface -- 9.4.5 Steric Stabilisation of Suspensions -- 9.4.6 Flocculation of Sterically Stabilised Suspensions -- 9.4.7 Properties of Concentrated Suspensions -- 9.4.8 Characterisation of Suspensions and Assessment of their Stability -- 9.4.8.1 Optical Microscopy.

9.4.8.2 Electron Microscopy -- 9.4.8.3 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy -- 9.4.8.4 Scattering Techniques -- 9.5 Bulk Properties of Suspensions -- 9.5.1 Rheological Measurements -- 9.5.2 Sedimentation of Suspensions and Prevention of Formation of Dilatant Sediments (Clays) -- 9.5.3 Prevention of Sedimentation and Formation of Dilatant Sediments -- References -- Chapter 10 Formulation of Liquid/Liquid Dispersions (Emulsions) -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Creaming and Sedimentation -- 10.1.2 Flocculation -- 10.1.3 Ostwald Ripening (Disproportionation) -- 10.1.4 Coalescence -- 10.1.5 Phase Inversion -- 10.2 Industrial Applications of Emulsions -- 10.3 Physical Chemistry of Emulsion Systems -- 10.3.1 The Interface (Gibbs Dividing Line) -- 10.3.2 Thermodynamics of Emulsion Formation and Breakdown -- 10.3.3 Interaction Energies (Forces) between Emulsion Droplets and Their Combinations -- 10.3.3.1 van der Waals Attractions -- 10.3.3.2 Electrostatic Repulsion -- 10.3.3.3 Steric Repulsion -- 10.4 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Liquid/Liquid Interface -- 10.4.1 Mechanism of Emulsification -- 10.4.2 Methods of Emulsification -- 10.4.3 Role of Surfactants in Emulsion Formation -- 10.4.4 Role of Surfactants in Droplet Deformation -- 10.5 Selection of Emulsifiers -- 10.5.1 The Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) Concept -- 10.5.2 The Phase Inversion Temperature (PIT) Concept -- 10.6 Creaming or Sedimentation of Emulsions -- 10.6.1 Creaming or Sedimentation Rates -- 10.6.1.1 Very Dilute Emulsions (Φ 0.2) -- 10.6.2 Prevention of Creaming or Sedimentation -- 10.6.2.1 Matching the Density of Oil and Aqueous Phases -- 10.6.2.2 Reduction of Droplet Size -- 10.6.2.3 Use of `Thickeners' -- 10.6.2.4 Controlled Flocculation.

10.6.2.5 Depletion Flocculation -- 10.7 Flocculation of Emulsions -- 10.7.1 Mechanism of Emulsion Flocculation -- 10.7.1.1 Flocculation of Electrostatically Stabilised Emulsions -- 10.7.1.2 Flocculation of Sterically Stabilised Emulsions -- 10.8 General Rules for Reducing (Eliminating) Flocculation -- 10.8.1 Charge-Stabilised Emulsions (e.g., Using Ionic Surfactants) -- 10.8.2 Sterically Stabilised Emulsions -- 10.9 Ostwald Ripening -- 10.10 Emulsion Coalescence -- 10.10.1 Rate of Coalescence -- 10.11 Phase Inversion -- References -- Chapter 11 Formulation of Suspoemulsions (Mixtures of Suspensions and Emulsions) -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Suspoemulsions in Paints -- 11.2.1 Suspoemulsions in Sunscreens and Colour Cosmetics -- 11.3 Suspoemulsions in Agrochemicals -- 11.3.1 Model Suspoemulsion of Polystyrene Latex and Isoparaffinic Oil stabilised with Synperonic PE (PEO-PPO-PEO A-B-A Block Copolymer) -- 11.3.2 Model Systems of Polystyrene Latex with Grafted PEO Chains and Hexadecane Emulsions -- References -- Chapter 12 Formulation of Multiple Emulsions -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Preparation of Multiple Emulsions -- 12.3 Types of Multiple Emulsions -- 12.4 Breakdown Processes of Multiple Emulsions -- 12.5 Factors Affecting Stability of Multiple Emulsions, and Criteria for Their Stabilisation -- 12.6 General Description of Polymeric Surfactants -- 12.7 Interaction between Oil or Water Droplets Containing an Adsorbed Polymeric Surfactant: Steric Stabilisation -- 12.8 Examples of Multiple Emulsions Using Polymeric Surfactants -- 12.9 Characterisation of Multiple Emulsions -- 12.9.1 Droplet Size Measurements -- 12.10 Rheological Measurements -- References -- Chapter 13 Preparation of Nanosuspensions -- 13.1 Introduction.

13.2 Nucleation and Growth, and Control of Particle Size Distribution.