Polymer Composites -- Title Page -- Copyright -- Contents -- The Editors -- List of Contributors -- Chapter 1 Advances in Polymer Composites: Biocomposites- State of the Art, New Challenges, and Opportunities -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Development of Biocomposite Engineering -- 1.3 Classification of Biocomposites -- References -- Chapter 2 Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Biopolymers (Natural and Synthetic) -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Classification -- 2.3 Natural Biopolymers -- 2.3.1 Proteins -- 2.3.1.1 Collagen -- 2.3.1.2 Elastin -- 2.3.1.3 Albumin -- 2.3.1.4 Fibrin -- 2.3.1.5 Fibronectin -- 2.3.1.6 Zein -- 2.3.1.7 Gluten -- 2.3.1.8 Gelatin -- 2.3.1.9 Soy Protein -- 2.3.1.10 Whey Protein -- 2.3.1.11 Casein -- 2.3.2 Polysaccharides -- 2.3.2.1 Cellulose -- 2.3.2.2 Starch -- 2.3.2.3 Chitosan -- 2.3.2.4 Chitin -- 2.3.2.5 Hyaluronic Acid (HA) -- 2.3.2.6 Alginic Acid -- 2.3.2.7 Pectin -- 2.3.3 Polysaccharides from Marine Sources -- 2.3.3.1 Agar -- 2.3.3.2 Agarose -- 2.3.3.3 Alginic Acid/Alginate -- 2.3.3.4 Carrageenan -- 2.3.3.5 Cutan -- 2.3.3.6 Cutin -- 2.3.4 Low Molecular Weight Biopolymers -- 2.3.4.1 Guar Gum -- 2.3.4.2 Rosin -- 2.3.4.3 Chondroitin Sulfate -- 2.3.4.4 Gum Copal -- 2.3.4.5 Gum Damar -- 2.3.5 Microbial Synthesized Biopolymers -- 2.3.5.1 Pullulan -- 2.3.5.2 Dextran -- 2.3.5.3 Curdlan -- 2.3.5.4 Xanthan -- 2.3.5.5 Bacterial Cellulose -- 2.3.6 Natural Poly(Amino Acids) -- 2.3.6.1 Jute -- 2.3.6.2 Coir -- 2.3.6.3 Yarn -- 2.3.6.4 Silk -- 2.3.7 Nucleic Acids -- 2.3.7.1 Natural Nucleic Acids -- 2.3.7.2 Synthetic Nucleic Acids (SNA) -- 2.4 Synthetic Biopolymers -- 2.4.1 Poly(Glycolide) PGA or Poly(Glycolic Acid) -- 2.4.2 Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA) -- 2.4.3 Poly(Lactide-co-Glycolide) -- 2.4.4 Polycaprolactone (PCL) -- 2.4.5 Poly(p-Dioxanone) (PDO) -- 2.4.6 Poly(Trimethylene Carbonate) (PTMC).

2.4.7 Poly-β-Hydroxybutyrate (PHB) -- 2.4.8 Poly(Glycerol Sebacic Acid) (PGS) -- 2.4.9 Poly(Propylene Fumarate) (PPF) -- 2.4.10 Poly(Anhydrides) (PAs) -- 2.4.11 Poly(Orthoesters) (POEs) -- 2.4.12 Poly(Phosphazene) -- 2.4.13 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) (PVA) -- 2.4.14 Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs) -- 2.4.15 Poly(Ester Amides) (PEAs) -- 2.5 Need for Biopolymers -- 2.6 Exceptional Properties of Biopolymers -- 2.7 Biomedical Polymers -- 2.7.1 Chitosan -- 2.7.2 Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA) -- 2.7.3 Collagen -- 2.7.4 Polycaprolactone (PCL) -- 2.7.5 Poly(2-Hydroxyethyl Methacrylate) (PHEMA) -- 2.7.6 Carbohydrate-Based Vaccines -- 2.7.7 Chitin -- 2.7.8 Albumin -- 2.7.9 Fibrin -- 2.7.10 Hyaluronic Acid (HA) -- 2.7.11 Chondroitin Sulfate (CS) -- 2.7.12 Alginic Acid -- 2.7.13 Poly(Anhydrides) -- 2.8 Composite Material -- 2.9 Blends -- 2.10 Applications of Biopolymers -- 2.10.1 Medical Applications -- 2.10.1.1 Surgical Sutures -- 2.10.1.2 Bone Fixation Devices -- 2.10.1.3 Vascular Grafts -- 2.10.1.4 Adhesion Prevention -- 2.10.1.5 Artificial Skin -- 2.10.1.6 Drug Delivery Systems -- 2.10.1.7 Artificial Corneas -- 2.10.1.8 Artificial Blood Vessels -- 2.10.2 Agricultural Applications -- 2.10.2.1 Agricultural Mulches -- 2.10.2.2 Controlled Release of Agricultural Chemicals -- 2.10.2.3 Agricultural Planting Containers -- 2.10.3 Packaging -- 2.10.3.1 Starch-Based Packaging Materials -- 2.10.3.2 PLA-Based Packaging Materials -- 2.10.3.3 Cellulose-Based Packaging Materials -- 2.10.3.4 Pullulan-Based Packaging Materials -- 2.10.3.5 Other Biopackaging Solution -- 2.11 Partially Biodegradable Packaging Materials -- 2.12 Nonbiodegradable Biopolymers -- 2.12.1 Poly(Thioesters) -- 2.12.1.1 Poly(3-Mercaptopropionate) (Poly(3MP)) -- 2.13 Conversion of Nonbiodegradable to Biodegradable Polymers.

2.14 Current Research Areas in Biopolymers and Bioplastics -- 2.15 General Findings and Future Prospects -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 3 Preparation, Microstructure, and Properties of Biofibers -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Structure of Natural Plant Fibers -- 3.2.1 Microstructure -- 3.2.2 Crystal Structure -- 3.3 Ultimate Properties of Natural Fibers -- 3.3.1 Elastic Modulus -- 3.3.2 Tensile Strength -- 3.4 Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Cellulose Microfibrils and Macrofibrils -- 3.5 All-Cellulose Composites and Nanocomposites -- 3.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4 Surface Treatment and Characterization of Natural Fibers: Effects on the Properties of Biocomposites -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Why Is Surface Treatment of Natural Fibers Important in Biocomposites? -- 4.3 What Are the Surface Treatment Methods of Natural Fibers? -- 4.3.1 Chemical Treatment Methods -- 4.3.1.1 Alkali Treatment -- 4.3.1.2 Silane Treatment -- 4.3.1.3 Acetylation Treatment -- 4.3.1.4 Benzoylation and Benzylation Treatments -- 4.3.1.5 MAPP Treatment -- 4.3.1.6 Peroxide Treatment -- 4.3.2 Physical Treatment Methods -- 4.3.2.1 Plasma Treatment -- 4.3.2.2 Corona Treatment -- 4.3.2.3 Electron Beam Treatment -- 4.3.2.4 Ultraviolet Treatment -- 4.3.2.5 Ultrasonic Treatment -- 4.4 How Does the Surface Treatment Influence the Properties of Biocomposites? -- 4.4.1 Chemical Changes of Natural Fibers -- 4.4.2 Morphological and Structural Changes of Natural Fibers -- 4.4.3 Mechanical Changes of Natural Fibers -- 4.4.4 Interfacial Properties of Biocomposites -- 4.4.5 Mechanical Properties of Biocomposites -- 4.4.6 Impact Properties of Biocomposites -- 4.4.7 Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Biocomposites -- 4.4.8 Thermal Properties of Biocomposites.

4.4.9 Water Absorption Behavior of Biocomposites -- 4.5 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 5 Manufacturing and Processing Methods of Biocomposites -- 5.1 Processing Technology of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composite -- 5.1.1 Background -- 5.1.2 NF- Reinforced PLA Resin Composite Material -- 5.1.3 Pellet Production Technology of Continuation Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Resin Composite Material -- 5.1.4 Pellet Manufacturing Technology of the Continuous Natural Fiber- Reinforced Thermoplastic Resin Composite Material -- 5.1.4.1 Process Outline -- 5.1.4.2 Review of Mechanical Apparatus -- 5.1.4.3 Main Equipment -- 5.1.4.4 Process Features -- 5.1.4.5 Mechanical Properties of NF-LFP -- 5.1.5 Pellet Manufacturing Technology of the Distributed Type Natural Fiber- Reinforced Thermoplastic Resin Composites -- 5.1.5.1 Process Development -- 5.1.5.2 Automatic Material-Supplying System -- 5.1.5.3 Optimal Screw Configuration and Influence of BF Fiber Diameter -- 5.1.5.4 Influence of BF Content -- 5.1.6 Future Outlook -- 5.2 Processing Technology of Wood Plastic Composite (WPC) -- 5.2.1 Raw Materials -- 5.2.1.1 Manufacture of Woody Materials -- 5.2.1.2 Plastic -- 5.2.1.3 Compatibilizer -- 5.2.2 Compounding Process -- 5.2.2.1 Compounding Using an Extrusion Machine -- 5.2.2.2 Compounding Using a Henschel Type Mixer -- 5.2.2.3 Evaluation of Compounds -- 5.2.3 Molding Process -- 5.2.3.1 Extrusion Molding -- 5.2.3.2 Injection Molding -- 5.2.4 The Future Outlook for WPC in Industry -- References -- Chapter 6 Biofiber-Reinforced Thermoset Composites -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Materials and Fabrication Techniques -- 6.2.1 Thermosetting Resins -- 6.2.1.1 Synthetic Thermosets -- 6.2.1.2 Biosynthetic Thermosets -- 6.2.2 Natural Fibers -- 6.2.3 Fabrication Techniques -- 6.2.3.1 Hand Layup -- 6.2.3.2 Compression Molding.

6.2.3.3 Filament Winding -- 6.2.3.4 Pultrusion -- 6.2.3.5 Resin Transfer Molding -- 6.3 Biofiber-Reinforced Synthetic Thermoset Composites -- 6.3.1 Polyester-Based Composites -- 6.3.2 Epoxy-Based Composites -- 6.3.3 Vinyl Ester-Based Composites -- 6.3.4 Phenolic Resin-Based Composites -- 6.3.5 Other Thermoset-Based Composites -- 6.4 Biofiber-Reinforced Biosynthetic Thermoset Composites -- 6.4.1 Lignin-Based Composites -- 6.4.2 Protein-Based Composites -- 6.4.3 Tannin-Based Composites -- 6.4.4 Triglyceride-Based Composites -- 6.4.5 Other Thermoset-Based Composites -- 6.5 End-of-Life Treatment of NFR Thermoset Composites -- 6.5.1 Recycling as Composite Fillers -- 6.5.2 Pyrolysis -- 6.5.3 Chemical Recycling -- 6.5.4 Energy Recovery -- 6.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7 Biofiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Source of Biofibers -- 7.3 Types of Biofibers -- 7.3.1 Annual Biofibers -- 7.3.1.1 Straw -- 7.3.1.2 Bast Fiber -- 7.3.1.3 Grasses -- 7.3.1.4 Residues -- 7.3.2 Perennial Biofibers (Wood Fibers) -- 7.3.2.1 Tree Plantation Products -- 7.3.2.2 Forest Plant Products -- 7.3.2.3 Agro-Forestry Products -- 7.4 Advantages of Biofibers -- 7.5 Disadvantages of Biofibers -- 7.6 Graft Copolymerization of Biofibers -- 7.7 Surface Modifications of Biofibers Using Bacterial Cellulose -- 7.8 Applications of Biofibers as Reinforcement -- 7.8.1 Composite Boards -- 7.8.1.1 Particleboards -- 7.8.1.2 Fiberboards -- 7.8.2 Biofiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites -- 7.8.2.1 Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics -- 7.8.2.2 Ramie Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics -- 7.8.2.3 Flax Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics -- 7.8.2.4 Sisal Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics -- 7.8.2.5 Jute Fiber Reinforced-Thermoplastics -- 7.8.2.6 Hemp Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics.

7.9 Biofiber Graft Copolymers Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites.