Field Testing Genetically Modified Organisms: Framework for Decisions -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- 1 Executive Summary -- PLANTS -- MICROORGANISMS -- FRAMEWORK -- 2 Introduction -- THE GENETIC MODIFICATION OF ORGANISMS: MERGING CLASSICAL AND MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES -- PLANT MODIFICATIONS-CLASSICAL TECHNIQUES -- PLANT MODIFICATIONS-MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES -- COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES IN PLANTS -- GENOME MODIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS-CLASSICAL TECHNIQUES -- GENOME MODIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS-MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES -- COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES IN MICROORGANISMS -- SUMMARY -- 3 Past Experience with Genetic Modification of Plants and Their Introduction into the Environment -- TYPES OF GENETIC MODIFICATION IN PLANTS -- Classical Techniques of Genetic Modification of Plants -- Cellular Techniques of Genetic Modification of Plants -- Molecular Techniques of Genetic Modification of Plants -- THE RESULTS OF GENETIC MODIFICATION -- Increased Yield and Increased Reliability of Performance -- MODIFICATIONS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON PERSISTENCE -- Degree of Domestication -- Plant Habit -- Adaptability, Range of Habitats -- CASE STUDIES OF INTRODUCED CROPS -- Soybean -- Canola -- Potato -- Maize (Corn) -- PAST EXPERIENCE WITH CONFINEMENT -- SUMMARY POINTS -- 4 Enhanced Weediness: A Major Environmental Issue -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES -- THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC PLANTS AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS -- Ecological Implications of Introducing Plants with Many New Traits -- Ecologically Important Changes that Result from Small Genetic Alterations -- THE ABILITY OF CROPS TO REVERT TO A WILD OR WEEDY CONDITION -- HYBRIDIZATION BETWEEN CROPS AND THEIR WILD RELATIVES -- SUMMARY POINTS -- 5 Past Experience with the Introduction of Modified Plants: Molecular Genetic Techniques.

PROPERTIES OF MOLECULAR GENETIC MODIFICATIONS -- Methods of Gene Introduction -- Genetic Stability of the Alteration -- Types of Genetic Alterations -- CASE STUDIES OF PLANTS MODIFIED BY MOLECULAR GENETIC TECHNIQUES -- Stability of Inserted Genes -- Undesirable Alteration of Plant Phenotype -- Environmental Impact on Nontarget Species -- Potential for Weediness -- Specific Examples -- SUMMARY POINTS -- 6 Conclusions and Recommendations: Plants -- WHAT DOES PAST EXPERIENCE TEACH US? -- About Introductions -- About Genetic Modification -- About Weeds -- CONTROL AND CONFINEMENT OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANT VARIETIES -- LARGE-SCALE INTRODUCTIONS AND COMMERCIALIZATION -- A FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING RISK -- GEOGRAPHIC FRAME OF REFERENCE -- OVERSIGHT CONSIDERATIONS -- 7 Past Experience with the Introduction of Microorganisms into the Environment -- HISTORY OF BENEFICIAL USES OF MICROORGANISMS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE -- Food Production -- Agriculture -- Waste Treatment -- Bioremediation -- Mining and Mineral Recovery -- SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND MOLECULAR METHODS -- CONSIDERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH UNFAMILIAR APPLICATIONS OF MICROORGANISMS -- SUMMARY POINTS -- 8 Properties of the Genetic Modification -- HISTORY -- Ice-Nucleation-Deficient Pseudomonas Mutants -- Transfer-Defective Mutant of Agrobacterium radiobacter -- Lactose-Catabolizing Pseudomonas fluorescens -- GENETIC CONSIDERATIONS -- Type of Genetic Alteration -- Regulation of Gene Expression -- Intended and Unintended Changes -- Precision of Characterization -- Source of New Genes -- Genetic Markers -- Biological Confinement -- SUMMARY POINTS -- 9 Phenotypic Properties of Source Microorganisms and Their Genetically Modified Derivatives -- PERSISTENCE -- Persistence of the Microorganism -- Persistence of the Genetic Modification.

PHENOTYPIC PROPERTIES AFFECTING THE ECOSYSTEM -- Competitiveness -- Substrate Utilization -- Involvement in Ecosystem Processes -- Environmental Range -- Host Range -- CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROBIAL PATHOGENS -- Background -- Pathogenicity Versus Virulence -- Genes That Confer Pathogenicity -- Gene-for-Gene Interactions -- GENERAL PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PATHOGENS -- Acquisition of Virulence -- SUMMARY POINTS -- 10 Properties of the Environment Relevant to the Introduction of Genetically Modified Microorganisms -- TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS -- HABITABILITY OF ENVIRONMENTS -- Nutrient Status -- Toxic Chemicals and Metabolites -- Physicochemical Factors -- Biological Factors -- DISPERSAL -- SUITABILITY OF MICROCOSMS FOR TESTING OF MICROBIAL INTRODUCTIONS -- SCALE AND FREQUENCY OF INTRODUCTION -- POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF MONITORING -- MITIGATION -- SUMMARY POINTS -- 11 Conclusions and Recommendations: Microorganisms -- Appendix Historical Overview of Nucleic Acid Biotechnology: 1973 to 1989 -- FORMATION OF NIH GUIDELINES -- ENVIRONMENTAL RELEASES -- CONGRESSIONAL INITIATIVES -- DEVELOPMENT OF REGULATORY OVERSIGHT -- EVALUATION OF OVERSIGHT CAPABILITIES -- Literature Cited -- Information on Committee Members -- STEERING COMMITTEE -- SUBCOMMITTEE ON MICROORGANISMS -- SUBCOMMITTEE ON PLANTS.