Acknowledgement -- Table of Treaties and Other International Acts -- Table of Cases -- List of Abbreviations -- Glossary -- Introduction -- Chapter One. The Background and Root Causes of the Conflicts in Somalia -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Somalia and Its People -- 3. The Clanship System and Somali Society -- 3. 1. The Clan System -- 3. 2. Minorities -- 4. The Colonial Legacy -- 5. The Post-Independence Somali State (1960-90) -- 5. 1. Civilian Rule (1960-69) -- 5. 1. 1. Greater Somalia -- 5. 2. The Revolutionary Military Regime (1969-90) -- 5. 2. 1. From Military Dictatorship to One Clan Dictatorship -- 5. 2. 2. The Institutionalisation of Human Rights Violations -- 5. 2. 3. National Security Laws -- 5. 2. 4. National Security Institutions -- 5. 2. 5. National Security Court -- 5. 2. 6. Human Rights Violations -- 5. 2. 7. Clan Manipulation: divide and rule tactics -- 5. 2. 8. The Legacy of Cold War Rivalry -- 5. 2. 9. The Somali/Ethiopian War (1977-78) -- 6. The Emergence of Clan-based Armed Opposition Movements -- 6. 1. Retaliations against Civilians of Opposition Clans -- 6. 1. 1. The SSDF (Majerteen) of Central Somalia (1980-82) -- 6. 1. 2. The SNM (Isaaq) of Northern Somalia (1988-90) -- 6. 1. 3. The USC (Hawiye) of Central and Southern Somalia (1989-91) -- 7. The Collapse of the Somali State (1991) -- 7. 1. The Northwest (Somaliland) Case -- 7. 2. The Northeast (Puntland) Case -- 7. 3. The Struggle for Power between the USC and Barre's Supporters (1991-1992) -- 7. 3. 1. Clan-cleansing, Occupation of Areas and Forced Displacement -- 7. 3. 2. The Struggle for Power within the USC (1992-) -- 7. 3. 3. The International Response (1992-1995) -- 7. 3. 4. The Proliferation and Intra-factionalism of the Armed Groups -- 7. 4. Struggle for Resources (1995-) -- 7. 4. 1. The Sale of Fishing Licences - revenue.

7. 4. 2. Piracy -- 7. 4. 3. The Sale of Hazardous Waste Licences - revenue -- 7. 4. 4. Banana Wars -- 7. 4. 5. Charcoal Revenue -- 7. 4. 6. Humanitarian Aid - revenue, power -- 8. Djibouti (Arta) Reconciliation Conference -- 9. External Factors -- 9. 1. The Regional Factor -- 9. 2. The Availability of Arms -- 10. Parties to the Conflicts -- 10. 1. Non-State Armed Groups -- 10. 1. 1. The Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) -- 10. 1. 2. The Somali National Movement (SNM) -- 10. 1. 3. The United Somali Congress (USC) -- 10. 1. 4. The Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) -- 10. 1. 5. The Somali National Front (SNF) -- 10. 1. 6. The Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA) -- 10. 1. 7. The Southern Somali National Movement (SSNM) -- 10. 1. 8. Alliances of Armed Factions -- 10. 1. 9. The Al-Ittihad al-Islamia (Islamic Union Party) -- 11. Conclusion -- Chapter Two. Characteristics of Conflicts in Somalia -- 1. Introduction -- 2. The Segmentary Lineage System -- 3. Traditional Attitude to Conflicts -- 4. Traditional Causes of Conflicts -- 4. 1. Conflicts between Pastoralists -- 4. 1. 1. Livestock Rustling -- 4. 1. 2. Competition for Access to Scarce Water and Pasture Resources -- 4. 2. Conflicts between Agro-Pastoralists and Farmers -- 4. 2. 1. Land and Farms -- 4. 3. Women -- 4. 4. Other Traditional Causes of Conflicts -- 4. 5. Relationship between Causes of Conflict and the Form of Conflict -- 5. Traditional Forms of Warfare -- 5. 1. Offensive Raid (Duulaan) -- 5. 1. 1. Among the Pastoralists -- 5. 1. 2. Among the Agrarians -- 5. 2. Rearguard (Gaaddan) -- 5. 3. Commando (Wareemato) -- 5. 4. A Pursuit (Raacdo) -- 5. 5. General Features -- 6. Current Form of Conflicts -- 6. 1. Offensive Raids -- 6. 2. Pursuit -- 6. 3. Inter and Intra-Factional Fighting -- 6. 4. General Reflections -- 7. Conclusion.

Chapter Three. Traditional Somali Customary Rules -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Post-Independence Somali Legal System -- 2. 1. Post-Revolution Somali Legal System -- 2. 2. The Legal System after the Collapse of the State -- 2. 3. Islamic Courts -- 3. The Formation of Somali Customary Rules -- 3. 1. The Councils of Elders (Guurti) -- 3. 2. The Diya System -- 4. Pre-and Post-Independence Status of Somali Customary Law -- 4. 1. The Status of Customary Law under Colonial Rule -- 4. 2. Post-Independence Status of Customary Law -- 4. 3. Post-Revolution Status of Customary Law -- 4. 4. Post-State Collapse Status of Customary Law -- 5. The Principle of Clan Collective Responsibility in Somali Customary Law -- 5. 1. Collective Responsibility between Clans -- 5. 2. Collective Responsibility Within the Clan -- 6. Formation of Somali Customary Rules of Warfare -- 7. Rules Governing the Conduct of War -- 7. 1. How Fighting Was Carried Out -- 7. 1. 1. Prohibited Practices of Fighting -- 7. 1. 2. Prohibited Traditional Weapons -- 8. Rules Protecting Immune Groups Biri-Ma-Geydo -- 8. 1. Persons Protected From Attacks -- 8. 2. Victims of the Fighting -- 8. 3. Islamic Law and the Conflict in Somalia -- 9. The Enforcement System of the Somali Customary Rules of Warfare -- 10. Traditional Institutions of Conflict Resolution -- 10. 1. The Role of Elders -- 10. 2. The Role of Poets and Poetry -- 10. 3. The Role of Religious Men -- 10. 4. The Role of Women -- 11. Conclusion -- Chapter Four. Rules of International Law Applicable to Non-international Armed Conflicts -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Treaty Law Rules Applicable to the Conflict in Somalia -- 2. 1. Definition of a "party to the conflict" and the Warring Parties in Somalia -- 2. 2. Existence of an armed conflict in Somalia -- 2. 3. Persons Covered by Common Article 3.

2. 4. Prohibited Acts -- 2. 5. The Wounded and Sick -- 2. 6. Humanitarian Initiative -- 2. 7. Special Agreement -- 2. 8. Effect on Legal Status -- 3. International Customary Rules Applicable to the Conflict in Somalia -- 3. 1. The Establishment of Customary International Law -- 3. 1. 1. Relationship between Treaty and Custom -- 3. 1. 2. Customary Law Applicable without Reference to Treaty Provisions Relating to Non-International Armed Conflicts -- 3. 2. Customary International Law on the Protection of Victims -- 3. 2. 1. The Wounded and Sick and Those Hors de Combat -- 3. 2. 2. Fundamental Guarantees -- 3. 2. 3. Protection of Detainees -- 3. 3. Customary Law on the Conduct of Hostilities -- 3. 3. 1. Prohibited Methods of Warfare -- 3. 3. 1. 1. The Principle of Distinction -- 3. 3. 1. 2. Intentional Attacks against Civilians -- Medical and Religious Personnel -- Humanitarian and Relief Personnel -- 3. 3. 1. 3. Indiscriminate Attacks Against Civilians -- 3. 3. 1. 4. The Principle of Proportionality -- 3. 3. 1. 5. Precautions in Attack -- 3. 3. 1. 6. Precautions against the Effects of Hostilities -- 3. 3. 1. 7. Reprisal Attacks against Civilians -- 3. 3. 1. 8. Attacks against Civilian Objects -- Medical and Religious Units and Transports -- Humanitarian and Relief Objects -- Cultural Property -- 3. 3. 1. 9. Pillage -- 3. 3. 1. 10. Denial of Quarter -- 3. 3. 1. 11. Perfidy -- 3. 3. 1. 12. Starvation -- 3. 3. 2. Prohibited Means of Warfare -- 4. The Statute of the ICC and Non-international Armed Conflicts -- 5. Enforcement of the Applicable International Rules -- 6. Conclusion -- Chapter Five. Evidence of Humanitarian Law Violations in Somalia -- Introduction -- 1. The War in the Northern Regions of Somalia (1988-1991) -- 1. 1. Attacks against Civilians -- 1. 1. 1. Intentional Attacks against Civilians.

1. 1. 2. Indiscriminate Attacks against Civilians -- 1. 1. 3. Reprisal Attacks against Civilians -- 1. 1. 4. Particular Categories of Civilians -- 1. 1. 4. 1. Attacks against Humanitarian Personnel -- 1. 1. 4. 2. Attacks against Refugees -- 1. 2. Treatment of Persons -- 1. 2. 1. Violence to Life and Person -- 1. 2. 2. Rape and Sexual Violence -- 1. 2. 3. Taking Hostages -- 1. 2. 4. Executions of Detainees and those Hors de Combat -- 1. 2. 5. The Wounded and Sick -- 1. 3. Attacks against Objects -- 1. 3. 1. Attacks against Civilian Objects -- 1. 3. 2. Pillage and Looting -- 1. 4. Particular Issues -- 1. 4. 1. Perfidy and Treachery -- 1. 4. 2. The Unlawful Use of Landmines -- 1. 4. 3. The Use of Child Soldiers -- 1. 4. 4. Denial of Humanitarian Assistance -- 1. 4. 5. The Denial of Due Process -- 1. 5. Evaluation -- 2. The War in the Central and Southern Regions (1989-2003) -- 2. 1. Attacks against Civilians -- 2. 1. 1. Intentional Attacks against Civilians -- 2. 1. 2. Indiscriminate Attacks Against Civilians -- 2. 1. 3. Reprisal Attacks against Civilians -- 2. 1. 4. Particular Categories of Civilians -- 2. 1. 4. 1. Attacks against Medical and Humanitarian Personnel -- 2. 2. Treatment of Persons -- 2. 2. 1. Violence to life and Person -- 2. 2. 2. Rape and Sexual Violence -- 2. 2. 3. Taking Hostages -- 2. 2. 4. Executions of Detainees and those Hors de Combat -- 2. 2. 5. The Wounded and Sick -- 2. 3. Attacks against Civilian Objects -- 2. 3. 1. Attacks against Civilian Property -- 2. 3. 2. Attacks against Medical Units and Humanitarian Infrastructure -- 2. 3. 3. Pillage and Looting -- 2. 4. Particular Issues -- 2. 4. 1. Perfi dy and Treachery -- 2. 4. 2. The Unlawful Use of Landmines -- 2. 4. 3. The Use of Child Soldiers -- 2. 4. 4. Denial of Humanitarian Assistance -- 2. 4. 5. The Denial of due process.

2. 5. Evaluation.