Contents -- 1 SURVEY OF SOLAR EQUIPMENT AND APPLICATIONS -- 1.1 The Promise and the Challenge of Solar Energy -- 1.2 Survey of Applications -- 1.3 Solar Collector Technology -- 1.3.1 Flat Plates and Solar Ponds -- 1.3.2 Evacuated Tubes -- 1.3.3 Concentrating Collectors -- 1.4 Thermal Storage Technologies -- 1.5 Storage, Backup, and the Electric Utilities -- References -- 2 SOLAR GEOMETRY -- 2.1 The Source of Radiation -- 2.2 Sun-Earth Geometry -- 2.3 Incidence Angles on Fixed Surfaces -- 2.4 Incidence Angles on Tracking Surfaces -- 2.5 Projected Incidence Angles -- References -- 3 INSOLATION DATA AND MODELS -- 3.1 Solar Spectrum -- 3.2 Types of Insolation -- 3.3 Instruments for Measuring Solar Radiation -- 3.4 Insolation Data -- 3.5 Insolation Models -- 3.5.1 Types of Models -- 3.5.2 Clear Sky Radiation -- 3.5.3 Correlations between Beam, Diffuse, and Hemispherical Radiation -- 3.6 Long Term Average Insolation -- 3.7 Frequency Distribution of Daily Radiation Values -- 3.8 Yearly Irradiation on Aperture -- 3.9 Seasonal Variation of Insolation -- 3.10 Summary -- References -- 4 COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY AND COLLECTOR TESTING -- 4.1 Definition of Instantaneous Collector Efficiency -- 4.1.1 Specification of Insolation -- 4.1.2 Optical Efficiency and U Value -- 4.2 Efficiency Based on Fluid Temperature -- 4.3 Incidence Angle Modifiers -- 4.4 Test Results -- 4.5 Standard Collector Test Procedures -- 4.5.1 Instantaneous Efficiency -- 4.5.2 Collector Time Constant -- 4.6 Simplified Collector Test Procedures -- 4.6.1 Measurement of Heat Loss -- 4.6.2 Warm-up Test -- 4.6.3 Masked Stagnation Test -- 4.7 Measuring the Optical Quality of Focusing Collectors -- References -- 5 FUNDAMENTALS OF OPTICS FOR SOLAR COLLECTIORS -- 5.1 Reflection -- 5.1.1 The Law of Reflection -- 5.1.2 Optics of Troughlike Reflectors-Projection of Ray Trace Diagram -- 5.2 Refraction.

5.2.1 Snell's Law of Refraction -- 5.2.2 Fresnel Equations -- 5.2.3 Multiple Reflections -- 5.2.4 Absorption in the Cover -- 5.2.5 Absorption at the Absorber -- 5.2.6 Optics of Glass Tubes -- 5.3 Concentration of Solar Radiation -- 5.3.1 Definition of Concentration Ratio -- 5.3.2 Thermodynamic Limit of Concentration -- 5.3.3 Acceptance of Diffuse Radiation -- 5.3.4 Operating Temperature as a Function of Concentration -- 5.4 Image Spread Due to Finite Source and Optical Errors -- 5.4.1 Angular Distribution of Beam Radiation -- 5.4.2 Statistics of Reflecting Surfaces -- 5.4.3 Effect of Surface Errors on Width of Reflected Beam -- 5.4.4 Combination of Optical Errors -- 5.5 Image Spread for Line Focus Collectors -- References -- 6 OPTICS OF NONTRACKING COLLECTORS -- 6.1 Compound Parabolic Concentrators -- 6.2 Reflectors for Evacuated Tubes -- 6.3 V-Troughs -- 6.4 Side Reflectors -- References -- 7 TRACKING CONCENTRATOR TYPES -- 7.1 Parabolic Reflectors -- 7.2 Fresnel Reflectors -- 7.2.1 Line-Focus and Point-Focus Central Receivers -- 7.2.2 Tracking Motion for Linear Fresnel Reflectors -- 7.2.3 Off-Axis Aberrations of Spherical Reflectors -- 7.2.4 Curvature of Heliostats for Central Receiver -- 7.3 Fresnel Lenses -- 7.4 Fixed Reflectors with Tracking Receivers -- 7.4.1 Spherical Reflector -- 7.4.2 Circular Cylindrical Reflector with Tracking Receiver -- 7.4.3 Reflector Slats on Circular Cylindrical Mount -- 7.5 Concentrator Configurations for Low-Cost Manufacture -- 7.6 Second Stage Concentrators -- References -- 8 OPTICAL ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION OF PARABOLIC REFLECTORS -- 8.1 Analytical Framework -- 8.2 Angular Acceptance Function -- 8.2.1 Parabolic Troughs -- 8.2.2 Parabolic Dishes -- 8.3 Effective Source -- 8.3.1 Effective Source for Line-Focus -- 8.3.2 Effective Source for Point-Focus -- 8.4 Flux at Receiver and Intercept Factor.

8.5 Approximation of Sunshape by Gaussian Distribution -- 8.6 Intercept Factor and Circumsolar Radiation -- References -- 9 HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLAR COLLECTORS -- 9.1 General Considerations -- 9.2 Heat Flow to Ambient -- 9.3 Planar Configuration -- 9.4 Tubular Configuration -- 9.5 Concentrator Configuration -- 9.6 Heat Transfer Inside Tubes and Ducts -- 9.7 Conduction -- 9.8 Other Configurations -- 9.9 Heat Loss Coefficients of Typical Collectors -- 9.9.1 Evacuated Tubes -- 9.9.2 Tubular Receivers for Parabolic Troughs -- 9.9.3 Flat Plates -- 9.10 Warming of Glazing by Absorption of Solar Radiation -- References -- 10 HEAT TRANSFER FACTORS -- 10.1 Temperature Distribution in Collector -- 10.2 Mean Fluid Temperature -- 10.3 Fluid Inlet Temperature -- 10.4 Heat Exchanger Factor -- 10.5 Collector Arrays and Pipe Loss Factors -- References -- 11 SYSTEM MODELS -- 11.1 System Configuration and Controls -- 11.2 System Performance Analysis -- 11.2.1 Computer Simulations -- 11.2.2 Shorthand Procedures -- 11.3 Yearly Collectible Energy -- 11.3.1 Radiation above a Specific Threshold -- 11.3.2 Assumptions for Yearly Correlations -- 11.3.3 Operating Time -- 11.3.4 Other Thresholds -- 11.4 Monthly Utilizability Method -- 11.5 The φ,f-Chart -- References -- 12 APPLICATIONS -- 12.1 Active Space Heating and Cooling -- 12.1.1 System Configurations -- 12.1.2 Performance Prediction for Space Heating -- 12.1.3 Measured System Performance -- 12.1.4 Solar Cooling -- 12.2 Water Heating -- 12.2.1 System Types -- 12.2.2 Performance Comparison -- 12.2.3 Performance Prediction for Water Heaters -- 12.2.4 Swimming Pool Heaters -- 12.3 Industrial Process Heat -- 12.3.1 General Considerations -- 12.3.2 Systems without Storage for Constant Loads -- 12.3.3 Single-Pass Open-Loop System with Storage -- 12.3.4 Closed-Loop Configurations -- 12.4 Central Heat Collection.

12.5 Power Generation -- 12.5.1 Photovoltaics -- 12.5.2 Solar Thermal Power -- References -- 13 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS -- 13.1 Materials -- 13.1.1 Absorber -- 13.1.2 Cover -- 13.1.3 Reflector -- 13.1.4 Other Materials -- 13.2 Installation -- 13.2.1 Collector Location and Orientation -- 13.2.2 Pumps and Piping -- 13.2.3 Safety and Protection of Equipment -- 13.3 Maintenance and Cleaning -- 13.3.1 Maintenance -- 13.3.2 Cleaning -- 13.3.3 Tracking -- References -- 14 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS -- 14.1 Constant Currency -- 14.2 Comparing Present and Future Costs -- 14.2.1 The Time Value of Money -- 14.2.2 How to Choose the Rate for Discounting the Future -- 14.2.3 Levelizing -- 14.2.4 Discrete and Continuous Cash Flows -- 14.3 Economic Evaluation Criteria -- 14.3.1 Life Cycle Savings -- 14.3.2 Internal Rate of Return -- 14.3.3 Cost of Saved Energy -- 14.3.4 Payback Period -- 14.3.5 Comparison of Criteria -- 14.4 Other Costs -- 14.5 Debt Financing, Taxes, and Inflating Currency -- 14.5.1 Principal and Interest -- 14.5.2 Depreciation -- 14.5.3 The Complete Formula -- 14.5.4 Constant Currency versus Inflating Currency -- References -- 15 SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION -- 15.1 Optimization Criteria -- 15.2 Optimization -- 15.2.1 Equations for Optimization -- 15.2.2 Photovoltaics with Sellback to Utility -- 15.2.3 Industrial Process Heat Systems -- 15.3 System Value -- 15.3.1 Definition of Value -- 15.3.2 Value of System Changes -- 15.4 Value of Storage -- 15.4.1 General Formulation -- 15.4.2 Value of Storage for Industrial Process Heat -- References -- Appendix A: Nomenclature -- Appendix B: Units -- Appendix C: Properties of Materials -- Appendix D: Meterological Data -- Appendix E: Circumsolar Data -- Index -- A -- B -- C -- D -- E -- F -- G -- H -- I -- J -- K -- L -- M -- N -- O -- P -- R -- S -- T -- U -- V -- W -- Y -- Z -- Subject Index -- A -- B -- C -- D -- E -- F.

G -- H -- I -- K -- L -- M -- N -- O -- P -- R -- S -- T -- U -- V -- W -- Y -- Z.