Acknowledgements -- 1. The study of refusals -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Refusals -- 3. Possible refusal trajectories -- 4. Categorizing refusal responses -- 4.1. Identifying refusal features -- 4.2. Classification systems -- 5. Studies of refusals -- 2. Issues of methodology -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data collection -- 2.1. Discourse completion tests -- 2.2. Role play -- 2.3. Other methodology comparisons -- 3. Video data -- 4. Data-base -- 5. Analysis of interactional aspects - Effect of open role play -- 5.1. Quantitative analysis -- 5.2. Qualitative analysis: Classifying the data -- 6. Analysis of nonverbal aspects - Effect of video -- 6.1. Nonverbal messages -- 6.2. Physical context -- 6.3. Directionality and intensity of attention -- 6.4. Affect -- 6.5. Disadvantages -- 7. Conclusion -- 3. Episodes -- 1. Introduction -- 2. The episode -- 3. A complete refusal sequence -- 4. Analysis -- 4.1. Quantitative analysis -- 4.2. Qualitative analysis -- 5. Interpretation -- 6. Conclusion -- 4. Non-native management of back channels in English refusals -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Back channels -- 3. Head movement -- 4. Japanese and English nonverbal indicators -- 5. Issues of methodology -- 6. Analysis -- 6.1. Ability -- 6.2. Distribution: High frequency contexts -- 6.3. Distribution: A low frequency context -- 6.4. Problems -- 7. Conclusion -- 5. Nonverbal behavior in non-native English refusals -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Nonverbal behavior -- 2.1. Strategic uses of nonverbal behavior -- 2.2. Cross-cultural differences in nonverbal behavior -- 3. The data -- 4. Comparison of non-native speakers' nonverbal behavior -- 4.1. Rie's nonverbal behavior -- 4.2. Ryo's nonverbal behavior -- 4.3. Mie's nonverbal behavior -- 5. Comparison of nonverbal activity of the three non-native speakers -- 6. Conclusion -- 6. Pragmatic communication strategies -- 1. Introduction.

1.1. Communication strategies -- 1.2. Pragmatic communication strategies -- 2. Questions -- 3. General results -- 3.1. Question one: Outcomes -- 3.2. Question two: Refusal orientation -- 3.3. Question three: Strategies -- 4. Japanese pragmatic communication strategies -- 4.1. Bluntness -- 4.2. Indications of linguistic or sociocultural inadequacy -- 4.3. Use of the L1 -- 4.4. Sequential shifts in goal, semantic formula, or content -- 4.5. Nonverbal expressions of affect -- 5. Conclusion -- 7. Searching for common ground -- 1. Conversational expectations -- 2. Refusal structure -- 3. Getting the interaction back "on track" -- 3.1. Requests for reasons -- 3.2. Unacceptable moves -- 3.3. Establishing propositions "in play" -- 4. Conclusion -- 8. Language use and language learning -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Second language acquisition, negotiation of meaning and negative evidence -- 2.1. Interaction hypothesis -- 2.2. Language knowledge -- 2.3. Specific kinds of evidence -- 2.4. Availability of evidence -- 3. Attention and noticing -- 4. Interlanguage pragmatics -- 4.1. The development of pragmatic knowledge -- 4.2. Negotiation of meaning -- 5. Conclusion -- 9. Epilogue -- Appendices -- Appendix I -- Appendix II -- Appendix III -- Notes -- References -- Subject index -- Author index.