Front Cover -- Contents -- Foreword -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- About the Editors and Authors -- Abbreviations -- Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview -- Administrative Data Overestimate Primary Enrollment Rates -- Late Entry and Unequal Access to Education Remain Important Concerns -- Learning Outcomes Are Weak and Unequal -- Service Delivery Failures Undermine the Performance of the Education Sector -- Resource Allocations Are Often Misaligned, Unequal, and Inefficient -- References -- Chapter 2 Primary Education in Mainland Tanzania: What Do the Data Tell Us? -- Summary -- Introduction -- Children in Primary Schools -- Discrepancies between Survey-Based and Administrative Enrollments -- Late Entry to Primary School -- Fewer Opportunities and Lower Quality for Poor Pupils -- Challenges to Improving Primary School Enrollment -- The Way Forward -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 3 Addressing Tanzania's Gender Inequality Challenge in Secondary Schools -- Summary -- Introduction -- Gender Dimension of the Demand for Education Services -- Causes of Nonattendance in and Dropping from School -- Barriers, Remedies, and Drivers for Female Enrollment -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 4 Assessing Literacy and Numeracy in Tanzania's Primary Schools: The Uwezo Approach -- Summary -- Introduction -- Citizen-Led Assessment: The Key Tenets -- Findings -- Communicating with Key Actors -- What Comes Next? -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 5 An Educational Service Delivery Scorecard for Tanzania -- Summary -- Introduction -- The Service Delivery Indicators Project -- The Analytical Underpinnings of the Service Delivery Indicators -- Implementation of the Service Delivery Survey -- Indicators and Pilot Results -- Learning Outcomes: Test Scores in Education -- Lessons Learned, Trade-Offs, and Policy Recommendations for Scale-Up -- Notes -- References.

Chapter 6 Education Finance and Spending in Tanzania: Challenges and Opportunities -- Summary -- Introduction -- Education Finance in Tanzania -- Private and Public Education Spending -- Trends in Public Education Spending -- Structural Imbalances in Public Education Spending Patterns -- Public Education Unit Cost Estimates and Equitable Resource Allocations -- Policy Recommendations -- Annex 6A: Spending Patterns and National Education Strategies -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 7 Value for Money in Education -- Summary -- Introduction -- Education Spending and Results: National Trends -- Beyond the Averages: Unequal Funding, Unequal Outputs, and Local Inefficiencies -- The Scale of Inefficiency -- The Way Forward -- Notes -- References -- Boxes -- Box 2.1 Administrative and Survey-Based Measures of Net Enrollment -- Box 3.1 Sumbawanga Parents Given Ultimatum to Send Girls to School -- Box 5.1 Microlevel Survey Instruments for Measuring Resource Flows and Service Delivery -- Box 5.2 Service Delivery Production Function -- Figures -- Figure 1.1 Trends in Enrollment and Exam Results, 2006-12 -- Figure 2.1 Net Primary Enrollment Rate since the Introduction of the PEDP -- Figure 2.2 Net and Gross Primary Enrollment Rates by Region, 2010 -- Figure 2.3 Variations in Net Primary Enrollment Rates between Districts, 2006-07 (Selected Districts) -- Figure 2.4 Discrepancies between Survey-Based and Administrative Net Primary Enrollment Rates by Region, 2010 -- Figure 2.5 Discrepancies between Survey-Based and Administrative Gross Primary Enrollment Rates by Region, 2010 -- Figure 2.6 Share of Children Enrolled in Primary School by Age, 2004-05 and 2010 -- Figure 2.7 Share of Children Enrolled in Primary School by Age in Selected East African Countries -- Figure 2.8 Share of Children Enrolled in Secondary School by Age in Selected East African Countries.

Figure 2.9 Correlation between the District-Level Poverty Incidence and the Pupil-Teacher Ratio, 2001-02 -- Figure 2.10 Reasons Cited by Parents for Not Sending Their Eight-Year-Old Children to Primary School, 2006-07 -- Figure 2.11 Primary Enrollment in Kagera by Age and Nutritional Status, 2004 -- Figure 2.12 Distance to School and Primary Enrollment among Seven-Year-Old Children in Kagera, 2004 -- Figure 3.1 Few Countries Are Less Effective at Ensuring Girls Get to School -- Figure 3.2 Among Youth, Primary Schooling Is the Norm for Girls with Boys More Successful at Progressing to Secondary Schooling -- Figure 3.3 Young Women Leave Schooling Earlier Partly Because They Get Jobs Much More Quickly than Young Men -- Figure 3.4 Young Women Leave Schooling Earlier Also Because They Get a Smaller Wage Premium from Staying Longer in School than Young Men -- Figure 3.5 Young Women Require Adult Female Role Models to Emulate -- Figure 3.6 Young Women (and Men) from Poorer Households Need Financial Support -- Figure 3.7 Young Women Need Secondary Schools Closer to Their Homes -- Figure 3.8 First Generation Reforms Targeted at Affordability Have Been Successful -- Figure 4.1 Performance by Class and Subject (2010-11) -- Figure 4.2 Kiswahili Reading Levels by Class, 2011 -- Figure 4.3 English Reading Levels by Class, 2011 -- Figure 4.4 Numeracy Levels by Class, 2011 -- Figure 4.5 Performance by Schooling Status -- Figure 4.6 Performance by Language Spoken at Home -- Figure 4.7 Percentage of Pupils Meeting Standard 2 Proficiency by Location -- Figure 4.8 Average Teacher Attendance -- Figure 4.9 School Libraries -- Figure 4.10 Student Profile -- Figure 5.1 The Relationships of Accountability among Citizens, Service Providers, and Policy Makers -- Figure 5.2 Education Expenditures (per Student) Reaching Primary Schools.

Figure 5.3 Relationship between Student Performance and the Education Service Delivery Indicators -- Figure 6.1 Private and Public Spending on Education in Tanzania, by Quintile -- Figure 6.2 Recurring and Development Spending on Education, 2007-12 -- Figure 6.3 Distribution of Public Spending on Education -- Figure 6.4 Mismatch between Enrollment Levels and Public Education Spending -- Figure 6.5 Student Enrollment -- Figure 6.6 Funding Sources for Higher Education -- Figure 6.7 Numbers of Students Eligible and Ineligible for Higher Education -- Figure 6.8 Repayment and Default Rates for Student Loans by Sector -- Figure 6.9 Lessons on Sector Spending from Successful Reform Countries -- Figure 6.10 Declining Value Derived from Public Investment in Secondary Schooling -- Figure 7.1 Public Spending by Subsector -- Figure 7.2 Primary School Leavers Pass Rates -- Figure 7.3 Public Expenditure per PSLE Passer ("Cost per Passer") -- Figure 7.4 Results of Uwezo's Standard 2 (8-to-9-Year-Old Level) Mathematics Test among Pupils from Standard 3 to Standard 7 (9-to-14-Year-Olds) -- Figure 7.5 Children in Government Secondary School -- Figure 7.6 Percentage of CSEE Candidates at Grade -- Figure 7.7 Public Expenditure per University Student per Year -- Figure 7.8 Primary Education Budget per Capita across Districts-Persistent Inequality -- Figure 7.9 Children per Primary School Teacher-District Average Ranges from 30 to 80 -- Figure 7.10 PSLE Passers per 13-Year-Old-District Average Ranges from 0.2 to 1.1, 2008 -- Figure 7.11 Poverty Rates in Districts by Level of Spending -- Figure 7.12 Poverty and Passers per 13-Year-Old, 2008 (−32% Correlation) -- Figure 7.13 Child Health and Passers per 13-Year-Old, 2008 (−28% Correlation) -- Figure 7.14 Adult Literacy and Passers per 13-Year-Old, 2008 (60% Correlation).

Figure 7.15 More Teachers Means More Exam Passers (Controlling for Social Conditions) -- Figure 7.16 Distribution of Average Unit Cost: Recurrent Expenditure per PSLE Passer, 2008 -- Figure 7.17 "Frontier" Group Circled in Green, Highly Inefficient Districts Circled in Orange, 2008 -- Figure 7.18 Estimated PSLE Passers for an Extra T Sh 50 billion Spent in Each of Five Groups of Districts, Underserved to Best Served -- Map -- Map 5.1 Map of the Sampling Areas -- Tables -- Table 2.1 Estimated Primary Enrollment by Age, DHS and Administrative Data, 2010 -- Table 2.2 Age Distribution in Standard 1, 2000-01, 2008-09, and 2010-11 -- Table 2.3 Primary Enrollment and School-Age Population by Quintile, 2004-05 and 2010 -- Table 2.4 Share of Children Aged 10-13 Who Never Attended School by Quintile/Area, 2010 -- Table 2.5 Determinants of School Enrollment in Kagera, Children Aged Six to Eight, 2004 -- Table 3.1 Girls Stop Attending School as Early as 13 Years of Age -- Table 3.2 More than Half of Tanzanian Females Aged 13-21 Are Not in School -- Table 4.1 Coverage of the Uwezo 1 (2010) and Uwezo 2 (2011) in Tanzania -- Table 4.2 Percentage of Standard 7 Pupils Meeting Standard 2 Proficiency by Parents' Schooling Levels -- Table 5.1 Indicators in an Education Service Delivery Report Card -- Table 5.2 Infrastructure in Tanzania (Percentage of Schools with Electricity, Water, and Sanitation) -- Table 5.3 Average Number of Children per Classroom in Tanzania -- Table 5.4 Student-Teacher Ratio -- Table 5.5 Textbooks per Student -- Table 5.6 Absence Rate (Percentage of Teachers Not in School) -- Table 5.7 Absence Rate from Classroom (Percentage of Time Teachers Not in the Classroom) -- Table 5.8 Time Children in School Are Being Taught per Day -- Table 5.9 Share of Teachers with Minimum Knowledge in Tanzania.

Table 5.10 Share of Teachers Answering Correctly on Specific Questions.