Oil in the Sea -- Copyright -- Study Contributors -- Preface -- Contents -- Introduction -- Executive Summary -- OVERVIEW -- GENERAL ADVANCES: 1973-1983 -- Inputs -- Methods -- Fate -- Effects -- FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Major Findings -- Input of Petroleum -- Major Finding -- Major Recommendation -- Study Methods: Chemical -- Major Finding -- Study Methods: Biological -- Major Finding -- Physical/Chemical Fate of Petroleum -- Major Findings -- Major Finding -- Biological Fate of Petroleum -- Major Findings -- Major Recommendation -- Amounts of Hydrocarbons in the Oceans -- Major Findings -- Effects -- Major Finding -- Major Finding -- Major Recommendations -- Major Recommendation -- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS -- 1 Chemical Composition of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Sources -- INTRODUCTION -- CRUDE OILS -- REFINED PRODUCTS -- OIL SEEPS AND ANCIENT SEDIMENTS -- BIOGENIC HYDROCARBONS -- DIAGENETIC SOURCES -- COMBUSTION SOURCES AND COMPARISON TO PETROLEUM -- OTHER SOURCES -- DIAGNOSING SOURCES OF HYDROCARBONS -- Biogenic Sources -- Characteristics of Undegraded Petroleum -- Characteristics of Petroleum Altered by Physical, Chemical, and Biological Processes -- Characteristics of Combustion-Related Hydrocarbons -- REFERENCES -- 2 Inputs -- INTRODUCTION -- NATURAL SOURCES -- Natural Seeps -- Geological Implications of Seepage Rates -- Erosional Inputs of Petroleum -- OFFSHORE PRODUCTION -- Operational (Produced Water) Discharges -- Minor Spills -- Major Spills -- MARINE TRANSPORTATION -- OPERATIONAL DISCHARGES -- Crude Oil -- Product Oil -- DRY-DOCKING -- MARINE TERMINALS INCLUDING BUNKER OPERATIONS -- BILGE AND FUEL OIL -- Machine Space Bilges -- Fuel Oil Sludge -- Oily Ballast from Fuel Oil Tanks -- ACCIDENTAL SPILLAGES -- Tanker Accidents -- Nontanker Accidents -- ATMOSPHERE -- COASTAL, MUNICIPAL, AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES AND RUNOFF.

Municipal Wastewaters -- Nonrefinery Industrial Wastes -- Industrial Wastes from Refineries -- Urban Runoff -- River Discharges -- OCEAN DUMPING -- GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INPUTS -- SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 3 Chemical and Biological Methods -- INTRODUCTION -- General Strategies of Study Design -- Sampling Procedures and Equipment -- Statistical Design of Analytic Procedures in the Laboratory -- Presenting Results from Complex Oil Pollution Studies -- Designing Ecological Experiments to Study the Effects of Pollutants -- An Oil Spill Survey Design -- Summary -- Part A Chemical Methods -- INTRODUCTION -- SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PRESERVATION -- Sediments -- Sediment Traps -- Marine Organisms -- Seawater -- Sampling for Low-Molecular-Weight Hydrocarbons -- Sample Preservation -- SPILLED OIL CHARACTERIZATIONS -- Sample Collection and Preservation -- Analytical Methods -- Field Information -- Laboratory Information (Short Time Frame: Days to Weeks) -- Laboratory Information (Long Time Frame: Weeks to Months) -- MEASUREMENTS AND DETAILED ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES -- General -- Extraction of Organic Matter (High Molecular Weight, C11+) Hydrocarbons -- Sediments -- Tissues -- Seawater -- Concentration of Extract -- Sample Cleanup and Fractionation -- Polarity Fractionation -- Size Fractionation -- Chemical Techniques -- Analytical Methods for C11+ Hydrocarbons (Nonvolatiles) -- Gravimetric Methods -- Infrared Spectrometry -- Ultraviolet-Visible Fluorescence (UV/F) Spectrometry -- Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) -- High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) -- Gas Chromatography (GC) -- Gas Chromatographic Mass Spectrometry -- Other Methods -- Low-Molecular-Weight Hydrocarbons: Analytical Methods -- PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON INTERCALIBRATION/INTERCOMPARISON PROGRAMS -- REMOTE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF OIL SPILLS.

MONITORING FOR PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- Quality Control and Intercomparison of Data -- Identification of Sources of Input -- Application of Analytical Methods -- Nonhydrocarbon Compounds in Petroleum -- Metabolites and Photochemical Reaction Products -- Remote Sensing -- Sampling Techniques -- Part B Biological Methods -- INTRODUCTION -- Physiological, Behavioral, Population, and Ecosystem Effects -- Problems of Exposure, Type of Oil, Weathering, and Exposure Medium -- METHODS FOR ASSESSING TOXICITY OF PETROLEUM TO MARINE ORGANISMS -- Acute Lethal Toxicity Bioassay -- Chronic and Sublethal Effects Studies -- Field Studies -- Selection of Test Organisms -- Preparation of Oil-Water Solutions -- Water-Soluble Fractions: Static -- Water-Soluble Fractions: Flow Through -- Oil-in-Water Dispersions -- Surface Slicks: Laboratory -- Oil in Food -- Oiled Sediment Studies -- BACTERIA, YEASTS, AND FILAMENTOUS FUNGI -- Methods for Estimating Microbial Numbers and Biomass -- Methods for Estimating Metabolic Effects of Oil on Microorganisms -- Methods for Obtaining Indirect and Direct Measurements of Oil Degradation -- PLANKTON -- Phytoplankton -- Field Methods -- Laboratory Methods -- Zooplankton -- Field Methods -- Laboratory Methods -- ACCUMULATION AND MODIFICATION OF PETROLEUM BY MACROORGANISMS -- Field Exposure Methods -- Introduction Experiments -- Sediment Tray Experiments -- Enclosure Experiments -- Artificial Substrate Experiments -- Field Surveys -- Laboratory Exposure Methods -- COMMUNITIES -- Sampling Methods -- Subtidal Habitats -- Intertidal Habitats -- Vegetated Habitats -- Coral Reefs -- Analysis and Interpretation of Data -- Derived Community Indices -- Graphical Representation of Community and Population Data -- Multivariate Analyses -- Species and Populations.

Experimental Approaches Beyond the Laboratory -- FISH, SEABIRDS, AND MAMMALS -- Fish -- Seabirds -- Experimental Methods -- Census Studies -- Marine Mammals -- Toxicological Studies -- Surface Oiling -- Oil Avoidance -- Interference with Feeding -- Spills of Opportunity -- CYTOGENIC AND MUTAGENIC METHODS -- Chromosomal Aberrations -- Direct Examination of the Chromosome Karyotype -- Micronucleus Test and Related Mitotic Assays -- Dominant Lethal Gene Mutations -- Sister-Chromatid Exchange -- Sperm Mutation Test -- In Vitro Cell Transformation -- Mutagenesis Assays -- The Ames Assay -- Modifications on the Ames Assay -- Other Systems -- Applicability to Petroleum Studies -- ECOSYSTEMS -- RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 4 Fates -- INTRODUCTION -- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FATES -- Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Petroleum -- Density -- Viscosity and Pour Point -- Vapor Pressure -- Aqueous Solubility -- Processes -- Advection and Spreading -- Evaporation -- Dissolution -- Dispersion/Vertical Transport -- Emulsification/Mousse Formation (Water-In-Oil) -- Photooxidation/Autooxidation -- Sedimentation -- Summary and Recommendations -- BIOLOGICAL FATES -- Introduction -- Microbial Biodegradation -- Aliphatic Hydrocarbons -- Alicyclic Hydrocarbons -- Aromatic and Condensed Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons -- Asphaltenes and Resins -- Phytoplankton and Marine Algae -- Invertebrates and Vertebrates -- General Patterns of Hydrocarbon Uptake and Tissue Contamination -- Factors Influencing Petroleum Biodegradation Rates -- Composition and Weathering of Petroleum -- Temperature -- Hydrostatic Pressure -- Oxygen -- Mineral Nutrients -- Rates of Petroleum Biodegradation in the Marine Environment -- Microbial Degradation -- Cytochrome P450-Dependent Metabolism -- Patterns of P450-Mediated Metabolism -- Metabolism In Vivo -- Factors Influencing Metabolism.

Formation of Mutagenic Metabolites -- Conclusions and Recommendations -- AMOUNTS OF HYDROCARBONS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT -- Introduction -- Dissolved Petroleum Hydrocarbons -- Low-Molecular-Weight Hydrocarbons (C1-C4) -- Volatile Liquid Hydrocarbons (C5-C12) -- High-Molecular-Weight Hydrocarbons -- Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Surface Microlayer -- Particulate Petroleum Hydrocarbons (Tar Balls) -- Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Marine Sediments -- Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Marine Organisms -- Summary and Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- 5 Effects -- INTRODUCTION -- Toxicity -- Laboratory Versus Field Studies -- Factors Affecting Impact of Oil -- Geographic Location -- Oil Dosage and Impact Area -- Oceanographic Conditions -- Meteorological Conditions -- Season -- Oil Type -- Oil Metabolites and Photochemical Reaction Products -- Remedial Measures -- Mechanical Containment and Cleanup -- Chemical Control and Cleanup -- Indirect Effects -- EFFECTS ON BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES -- Developmental Problems -- Chromosomal Aberrations -- Reproduction and Development -- Pathological Consequences -- Growth and Metabolism -- Plants -- Animals -- Behavior -- Microorganisms -- Higher Organisms -- EFFECTS ON THE MARINE FOOD WEB -- Food Web Microbes -- Effects on Marine Plankton -- Phytoplankton -- Zooplankton -- Studies in Field Enclosures (Mesocosms) -- Macrophytes-Intertidal and Subtidal -- Benthic and Intertidal Invertebrates -- Vulnerability -- Lethal and Sublethal Effects -- Effects at the Population Level -- Fish -- Life-Cycle Stages -- Sublethal Effects -- Long Term Effects -- Vulnerability and Avoidance -- Effect on Fish Stocks -- Marine Mammals -- Vulnerability -- Oiling Incidents -- Oil Adherence to Body Surfaces -- Avoidance of Oiled Waters -- Thermoregulation and Metabolism -- Pathological Consequences -- Summary and Conclusion -- Birds.

Effect of Oil on Individual Birds.