Studies in Geophysics -- Copyright -- STUDIES IN GEOPHYSICS -- Contents -- OVERVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- INTRODUCTION -- Lightning -- Cloud Electrification -- Electrical Structure of the Atmosphere -- The Planetary Boundary Layer -- Mid-Troposphere-Stratosphere -- Mesosphere -- Ionosphere and Magnetosphere -- Telluric Currents -- Techniques for Evaluating the Electrical Processes and Structure -- Societal Impact -- Recommendations -- References -- I LIGHTNING -- 1 Lightning Phenomenology -- INTRODUCTION -- SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS OF LIGHTNING -- Optical Detectors -- Radio Detectors -- GROUND OBSERVATIONS OF LIGHTNING -- Intracloud Versus Cloud-to-Ground Lightning -- Lightning Flash Density -- Lightning Flash and Related Characteristics -- Lightning Location Networks -- CONCLUSIONS -- References -- 2 Physics of Lightning -- INTRODUCTION -- CLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNING -- IMPORTANT RESULTS OF RECENT RESEARCH -- Time-Domain Fields and Lightning Currents -- Locations of Lightning Radio Sources -- Artificial Triggering of Lightning -- CONCLUSION -- References -- 3 Positive Cloud-to-Ground Lightning -- INTRODUCTION -- RECENT AND ONGOING STUDIES -- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -- PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS -- AREAS NEEDING ADDITIONAL RESEARCH -- References -- 4 Acoustic Radiations from Lightning -- ACOUSTIC SOURCES IN THUNDERSTORMS -- THUNDER-THE RADIATION FROM HOT CHANNELS -- Shock-Wave Formation and Expansion -- Comparisons with Numerical Simulations and Experiments -- Tortuosity and the Thunder Signature -- PROPAGATION EFFECTS -- Finite-Amplitude Propagation -- Attenuation -- Scattering and Aerosol Effects -- Refraction -- MEASUREMENTS AND APPLICATIONS -- Propagation Effects Evaluation -- Acoustic Reconstruction of Lightning Channels -- ELECTROSTATICALLY PRODUCED ACOUSTIC EMISSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENT -- References.

5 Application of Advances in Lightning Research to Lightning Protection -- INTRODUCTION -- APPLICATIONS OF NEW LIGHTNING-DETECTION TECHNIQUES TO PROTECTION -- AMELIORATION OF LIGHTNING DAMAGE -- Mechanisms of Lightning Damage -- New Results on Lightning Characteristics -- Protection Techniques -- FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDED FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN PROTECTION -- CONCLUSIONS -- References -- 6 The Role of Lightning in the Chemistry of the Atmosphere -- ABSTRACT -- INTRODUCTION -- NO PRODUCTION BY LIGHTNING -- Estimate of P (NO) -- The Global Dissipation Rate, R -- The Global NO Production Rate, φ(NO) -- OTHER TRACE GASES PRODUCED BY LIGHTNING -- THE POSSIBLE ROLE OF ATMOSPHERIC DISCHARGES IN CLOUD CHEMISTRY -- CONCLUSION -- References -- II CLOUD AND THUNDERSTORM ELECTRICITY -- 7 Thunderstorm Origins, Morphology, and Dynamics -- INTRODUCTION -- VERTICAL CONVECTION AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT -- THE SIZE OF THUNDERSTORMS -- Conditioning the Air for Overturning -- CONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION IN RELATION TO AIR MOTION -- STRONG CONVECTION -- HAIL -- TORNADOES -- CONCLUDING REMARKS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENT -- References -- 8 The Electrical Structure of Thunderstorms -- ELECTRICAL STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT -- THE MAIN NEGATIVE AND UPPER POSITIVE CHARGES: SOME OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE -- INITIAL ELECTRIFICATION -- DISCUSSION -- PARTICLE-CHARGE OBSERVATIONS -- CHARGE MOTIONS AND CURRENTS -- LIGHTNING AND THE STORM ELECTRIFICATION -- LIGHTNING EVOLUTION -- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- References -- 9 Charging Mechanisms in Clouds and Thunderstorms -- INTRODUCTION -- CLOUD STAGE -- Diffusion Charging -- Drift Charging -- Selective Ion Charging -- RAIN STAGE -- Selective Ion Charging -- Breakup Charging -- Induction Charging -- HAIL STAGE -- Induction Charging -- Thermoelectric Charging -- Interface Charging -- EVALUATION -- Cloud Stage -- Rain Stage.

Hail Stage -- CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- References -- 10 Models of the Development of the Electrical Structure of Clouds -- INTRODUCTION -- GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FROM ELECTRICAL MODELS OF THUNDERCLOUDS -- MECHANISMS OF CHARGE SEPARATION -- Inductive Process -- Non-inductive Process -- Thermoelectric Effect -- Freezing Potentials -- Contact Potentials -- CHARGING BY ION ATTACHMENT -- SURVEY OF THEORETICAL MODELS -- Parallel-Plate Models -- One-Dimensional Models -- Two-Dimensional Models -- Three-Dimensional Models -- DISCUSSION -- References -- III GLOBAL AND REGIONAL ELECTRICAL PROCESSES -- 11 Atmospheric Electricity in the Planetary Boundary Layer -- INTRODUCTION -- PHYSICAL MECHANISMS THAT AFFECT ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN THE PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER -- Ionization -- Properties of Ions -- Attachment of Ions to Aerosol Particles -- Effect of the Global Circuit -- Turbulent Transport of Electrical Properties -- PHENOMENOLOGY OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN THE PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER -- MODELING AND THEORY -- Turbulence Modeling -- The Electrode Effect -- Convection Currents in the Planetary Boundary Layer -- Effect of the Planetary Boundary Layer on the Fair-Weather Electrical Circuit -- NEEDED RESEARCH AND POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS -- Measurement of Global-Scale Phenomena -- Potential Tool for Study of Planetary-Boundary-Layer Turbulence -- Ion Physics and Balance in the Planetary Boundary Layer -- References -- 12 Electrical Structure from 0 to 30 Kilometers -- INTRODUCTION -- ION PRODUCTION IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE -- AEROSOLS IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE -- ATMOSPHERIC CONDUCTIVITY, SMALL ION CONCENTRATION, AND MOBILITY -- AIR-EARTH CURRENT AND ELECTRIC FIELDS IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE -- CONCLUSION -- References -- 13 Electrical Structure of the Middle Atmosphere -- INTRODUCTION -- SOURCES OF IONIZATION -- ION CHEMISTRY IN THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE.

Positive Ions -- Negative Ions -- Model Calculations -- MESOSPHERIC AEROSOLS -- CONDUCTIVITY IN THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE -- ELECTRIC FIELDS IN THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE -- CONCLUSION -- References -- 14 Upper-Atmosphere Electric-Field Sources -- ELECTRODYNAMIC PROCESSES IN SPACE -- SOLAR WIND/MAGNETOSPHERE DYNAMO -- IONOSPHERIC WIND DYNAMO -- VARIABILITY -- EFFECTS OF UPPER-ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC FIELDS AND CURRENTS -- SOME OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENT -- References -- 15 The Global Atmospheric-Electrical Circuit -- THUNDERSTORMS AS GENERATORS IN THE GLOBAL CIRCUIT -- SOME PROPERTIES OF THE GLOBAL CIRCUIT -- Global Thunderstorms -- Current Above Thunderstorms -- Electrical Conductivity, Columnar Resistance, and Global Resistance -- Fair-Weather Vertical Current Density and Total Current -- Ionosphere Potential -- Electric Fields -- Electrical Relaxation Time -- MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY -- Model Improvements -- Regional Modeling -- ELECTRICAL COUPLING BETWEEN THE UPPER AND LOWER ATMOSPHERE -- SOME OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS -- References -- 16 Telluric Currents: The Natural Environment and Interactions with Man-Made Systems -- INTRODUCTION -- THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT -- The Physical Problem: Hydrology, Geology, Geothermics, and Tectonics -- Shallow Telluric Currents -- Deep Telluric Currents -- INTERACTIONS OF TELLURIC CURRENTS WITH MAN-MADE SYSTEMS -- Communication Cables -- Powerlines -- Pipelines -- Railways -- Corrosion -- APPLICATIONS OF TELLURIC CURRENT MEASUREMENTS -- Detection of Electromagnetic Signals from Space -- Prospecting of Underground Structures -- Deep-Earth Studies -- Tidal Phenomena and Water Flows -- Earth's Astronomical Motion -- Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Geodynamics -- Communications -- Biological Effects -- CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- References -- APPENDIX: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.

Appendix References -- INDEX.