THE FOUNDATIONS OF GRAMMAR AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL ARABIC GRAMMATICAL THEORY -- Editorial page -- Title page -- Copyright page -- Dedication -- Table of contents -- Symbols and conventions -- PREFACE -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 1. Aims of the Work -- 1.1 What the work does and does not do -- 1.1.1 What it does -- 1.1.2 What the study does not do -- 1.1.2.1 Not a grammar of Arabic -- 1.1.2.2 Not a comprehensive treatment of Arabic theory -- 1.1.2.3 History of Arabic theory -- 1.1.2.4 Individual authors -- 1.1.2.5 Historical and cultural perspectives -- 1.2 Who Were the Arabic grammarians? -- 1.2.1 The schools of grammar -- 1.2.1.1 The nature of the disputes -- two examples -- 1.2.1.2 References to Kufa and Basra in ninth century work -- 1.2.2 Post-ninth century -- 1.3 Arabic grammatical work -- 1.3.1 Descriptive grammars -- 1.3.2 Specialized subjects -- 1.3.3 General principles -- 1.3.4 Rhetoric (balâgha) -- 1.3.5 Lexicography (cf. Wild 1956, Rippen 1983) -- 1.3.6 Quranic interpretation -- 1.3.7 Bio-bibliographical sources -- 1.3.8 Ancillary works -- 1.4 The data -- 1.5 The descriptive technique -- 1.6 Western linguistic principles -- 1.7 Language diversity and language change -- 1.7.1 Dialect differences -- 1.7.2 Language change? -- 1.8 Organization of grammars -- 2. STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, CLASS and DEPENDENCY -- 2.1 Structure and function -- 2.1.1 Position and item realizing position -- 2.1.2 Terminology of position -- 2.2 Terms for sentence, kalâm and jumla -- 2.3 Governance/dependency, cAmal -- 2.3.1 The Arabic definition of dependency -- 2.3.2 The western conception -- 2.3.3 An initial comparison -- 2.3.4 Detailed comparison -- 2.3.4.1 One governor per item -- 2.3.4.1.1 Sarrâj -- 2.3.4.1.2 Ibn Yacîsh -- 2.3.4.2 Governor and governed adjacent (condition 13d) -- 2.3.4.3 The exception that proves the rule -- 2.3.5 Three further observations.

2.3.5.1 Governor-governed: a one-many relation -- 2.3.5.2 Dependency is unidirectional -- 2.3.4.3 Sequence generalization -- 2.3.6 Differences -- 2.3.6.1 The independent item -- 2.3.6.2 Modifiers -- 2.3.7 Governance and surface form -- 2.4 Six explanations for Case Form -- 2.4.1 Governance by syntactic position -- 2.4.2 Obligatory occurrence -- 2.4.3 By referential non-identity -- 2.4.4. Explanation by cross-categorical similarity: indicative verb -- 2.4.5 By speaker -- 2.4.6 By governing item -- 2.5 The function of inflection -- 2.5.1 Inflection of the verb -- 2.5.2 Governance of the noun -- 2.6 Uninflected words -- 2.7 Class -- 2.7.1 Sarrâj's summary -- 2.7.2 Class in morpho phonology -- 2.7.3 Class in morphology -- 2.8 Non-dependency relations and dependency -- 2.9 Constituency in Arabic theory -- 2.9.1 Syntactic position -- 2.9.2 Dependency -- 2.9.3 Dependency in Sîbawaih -- 2.9.4 Substitution -- 2.10 Complementary distribution -- 2.11 Morphological structure in Arabic theory -- 2.12 The structural nature of Arabic theory -- 2.12.1 Can a condition (hâl) or specifier (tamyîz) become the agent of a passive sentence ? -- 2.12.2 Constraints on embedding -- 3. MORPHOLOGY -- 3.1 The linguistic sign: Kalâm, Kalima and Lafdh -- 3.1.1 Kalâm and Kalima -- 3.1.2 Lafdh "form" -- 3.2 Three preliminary remarks -- 3.2.1 Orthography -- 3.2.2 The root system -- 3.2.3 The Firthian nature of Arabic phonology and morphophono1ogy -- 3.3 Tasrîf -- 3.3.1 Tasrif: distinguishing basic and non-basic sounds -- 3.3.2 Tasrîf: total range of morphological patterns -- 3.3.3 Sub-categories of tasrîf -- 3.3.4 Borderline cases and the breakdown of the morphology/ syntax, tasrîf/nahw model -- 3.4 'Ishtiqâq "Derivation" -- 3.5 Morphemes and added sounds -- 3.5.1 Added sounds and bound morphemes -- 3.5.1.1 Kalima: word or morpheme? -- 3.5.1.2 Not all morphemes are kalima.

3.5.2 The rationale behind the added letters -- 3.5.2.1 Meaning -- 3.5.2.2 Non-basic sounds without a meaning -- 3.5.2.2.1 Meaning -- 3.5.2.2.2 Morphotactical constraints -- 3.5.2.2.3 Derivation (ishtiqâq) -- 3.5.3 Other morphological patterns -- 3.6 The Tasrîf of a root -- 3.7 Arabic morphemic theory -- 3.8 Morphology as a generative system -- 3.9 Compounding (tarkîb) -- 3.10 Summary -- 4. WORD CLASSES -- 4.1 Phonological -- 4.2 Morphological -- 4.2.1 Nouns -- 4.2.2 Verbs -- 4.3 Syntactic -- 4.3.1 Noun -- 4.3.2 Verbs -- 4.4 Semantic (cf. Frank 1975: 272 ff.) -- 4.4.1 Nouns -- 4.4.2 Verbs' -- 4.4.3 Particles -- 4.5 Problems in the criteria -- 4.6 Sub-classes -- 4.7 The circumstance (Dharf) -- 4.7.1 Dharf "circumstance" as word class vs. functional category -- 4.7.2 Semantic unity, syntactic distinction? -- 4.7.3 Mubarrad's treatment -- 4.7.4 The meaning of mutamakkin for the circumstantials -- 4.7.5 Later accounts -- 4.8 The active participle (AP) -- 4.8.1 Aspect -- 4.8.2 Irregularities -- 4.9 The 'verb' of exclamation -- 4.9.1 Kufan arguments -- 4.9.2 Basran arguments -- 4.9.3 Basran rejoinders -- 4.9.4 Conclusion -- 5. THE NOUN PHRASE -- 5.1 What is a noun phrase and what does it do? -- 5.2 The noun phrase components in Arabic theory -- 5.3 Noun-noun relations -- 5.3.1 Possessed-possessor -- 5.3.2 Modifiers, tawâbic -- 5.3.3 The relative clause -- 5.4 The noun phrase as a unit -- 5.4.1 Informal evidence -- 5.4.1.1 Phrase level vs. sentence level -- 5.4.1.2 Substitution -- 5.4.2 The noun phrase as a formal unit -- 5.4.2.1 Three principles -- 5.4.2.2 The modifiers -- 5.4.3 A further principle: pairwise relations and sequence -- 5.5 Summary -- 6. TRANSITIVITY -- 6.1 Types of objects -- 6.1.1 Direct objects (mafc û1 bihi) -- 6.1.2 Two interpretations of 'transitive' (mutacaddi) -- 6.2 More objects -- 6.3 Optionality -- 6.4 Causative.

6.4.1 Causativization as a unitary process -- 6.4.2 Lexical nature of causatives -- 6.5 Voice and verb derivation -- 6.6 The passive -- 6.6.1 Description -- 6.6.2 Passivization as a process -- 7. ELLIPSIS -- 7.1 Contextual -- 7.2 Structural -- 7.2.1 Sarrâj's example -- 7.2.2 'Ishtighâl -- 7.2.3 Predicate locative -- 7.2.4 Vocative -- 7.3 Non-deletion -- 7.4 Ibn Hishâm's summary -- 7.4.1 Information -- 7.4.2 Operation of opposite processes -- 7.4.3 Restrictions on reduction -- 7.4.4 Grammatical constraints -- 7.5 Extension of function ('ittisâc) -- 7.6 The status of deletion -- 7.6.1 Contexts where ellipsis is not good -- 7.6.2 Allowed -- 7.6.3 The ellipted item cannot be expressed -- 7.7 Kufan-Basran arguments -- 7.8 Not all implicit relations are due to deletion -- 7.9 Comparison with deletions in transformational grammar -- 8. MARKEDNESS IN ARABIC THEORY -- 8.1 What is markedness? -- 8.2 An aside for terminology -- 8.3 Markedness in Arabic theory: Sîbawaih -- 8.4 Examples from later grammarians -- 8.4.1 'akhaff -'athgal "lighter-heavier" -- 8.4.2 'aqwâ-'adcaf "strong-weak" -- 8.4.3 'awwal, qabl "first, before" -- 8.4.4 'asl-farc -- 8.5 Two interpretations of Anbârî's markedness schema -- 8.6 Anbârî's schema exemplified -- 8.6.1 The inflected verb -- 8.6.2 Uninflected nouns, mabnî -- 8.6.3 Partially inflected nouns -- 8.6.4 Unmarked members of a word class -- 8.6.5 The form of the nominative -- 8.7 Sequence -- 8.7.1 Sequence with morphologically irregular verbs -- 8.7.2 Morphologically regular verbs -- 8.8 The 'asl-farc distinction as one of markedness -- 8.9 Comparison with transformational-generative grammar -- 8.9.1 Two aspects of TG -- 8.9.2 Two differences with Arabic theory -- 8.9.3 A TG vocabulary? -- 9. SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS -- 9.1 Semantic observations -- 9.1.1 Acceptability and sentence types -- 9.1.1.1 Sîbawaih.

9.1.1.2 Fârisî -- 9.1.2 Lexical items -- 9.2 Syntax and semantics -- 9.2.1 Correspondence -- 9.2.2 Lack of correspondence -- 9.2.2.1 Sentence and lexical items -- 9.2.2.2 Lack of correspondence and linguistic explanation -- 9.2.2.2.1 Ibn Hishâm and Ibn Jinnî -- 9.2.2.2.2 Semantics and the re-analysis of syntactic explanation -- 9.2.2.2.3 Semantic constraints on syntactic processes: the specifier and fronting -- 9.2.2.2.4 Structural similarities, differences, and semantic generalizations: the nawâsikh -- 9.2.2.2.5 Possession and the dictates of general assumptions -- 9.3 A separate semantic level? -- 9.4 Arabic grammar and transformational theory -- 9.5 Jurjânî, language and communication -- 9.6 Jurjânî and the Arabic linguistic tradition -- 9.7 Word order -- 9.7.1 Topic-comment and verb-predicate -- 9.7.1.1 Important item first -- 9.7.1.2 New/old information -- 9.7.1.2.1 Yes-no -- 9.7.1.2.2 Negative -- 9.7.1.2.3 Indicative -- 9.7.2 Multi-systemic analyses -- 9.7.3 unmarked sequence -- 9.7.4 Terminological difficulties -- 9.7.5 Definite topic-comment sentence -- 9.8 Epilogue -- NOTES -- Chapter 1 -- Chapter 2 -- Chapter 3 -- Chapter 4 -- Chapter 5 -- Chapter 6 -- Chapter 7 -- Chapter 8 -- Chapter 9 -- APPENDIX I. LIST OF MEDIEVAL ARABIC LINGUISTICS WHOSE WORKS ARE CITED -- APPENDIX II. BRIEF SUMMARY OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS -- APPENDIX III. ORIGINAL ARABIC QUOTES -- BIBLIOGRAPHY -- Primary sources -- Secondary sources -- INDEX OF NAMES FROM THE CLASSICAL PERIOD -- SUBJECT INDEX -- INDEX OF ARABIC GRAMMATICAL TERMS.