PESTICIDES in the DIETS OF INFANTS AND CHILDREN -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Executive Summary -- CONCLUSIONS -- Age-Related Variation in Susceptibility and Toxicity -- Age-Related Differences in Exposure -- A New Approach to Risk Assessment for Infants and Children -- RECOMMENDATIONS -- 1 Background and Approach to the Study -- PESTICIDE USE -- PESTICIDE CONTROL LEGISLATION -- APPROACH TO THE STUDY -- REFERENCES -- 2 Special Characteristics of Children -- GROWTH -- Normal Human Growth -- Human Compared to Animal Infants -- Toxicologic Implications of Growth in Cell Numbers and Size -- Toxicologic Implications of the Growth and Development of Organs -- Toxicologic Implications of Changes in Body Composition -- DEVELOPMENT -- Genetics, Development, and the Environment -- Metabolism -- Developmental Toxicity Studies -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- 3 Perinatal and Pediatric Toxicity -- ACUTE TOXICITY -- NEUROTOXICITY -- Postnatal Effects of Neurotoxicants -- Measuring Neurotoxic Effects in Humans -- The Lead Model -- Pesticides as Neurotoxicants -- Effects of Pesticides in Children -- Levels of Pesticides Affecting Children -- Comparability of Neurotoxicity Effects in Laboratory Animals -- IMMUNOTOXICITY -- Effects of Environmental Agents on the Immune System -- Animal Studies -- Studies in Humans -- CARCINOGENESIS AND MUTAGENESIS -- Carcinogenesis in the Developing Organism -- Animal Studies -- Human Studies -- METABOLISM AND PHARMACOKINETICS -- Dermal and Pulmonary Exposure -- Oral Exposure -- Absorption -- Other Factors Affecting Oral Absorption -- Distribution and Uptake of Chemicals -- Retention -- Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds -- Excretion -- SCALING AND REGRESSION ANALYSIS -- Body Weight -- Other Effects of Body Size -- Surface Area -- Metabolic Rate -- Regression Analysis.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- 4 Methods for Toxicity Testing -- CURRENT METHODS: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS -- ACUTE TOXICITY STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- SUBCHRONIC TOXICITY STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- CHRONIC TOXICITY STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- REPRODUCTION STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- MUTAGENICITY STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- GENERAL METABOLISM STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- NEUROTOXICITY STUDIES -- General Description -- EPA's Proposed Changes -- SPECIAL TESTING -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- 5 Food and Water Consumption -- FOOD CONSUMPTION SURVEYS -- SURVEY METHODOLOGY -- Retrospective Methods -- The 24-Hour (or 1-Day) Recall Method -- Food Frequency Questionnaires -- Prospective Methods -- Food Records or Diaries -- Combined Retrospective and Prospective Methods -- Methods Used in USDA Surveys -- SURVEY DESIGN -- SAMPLE WEIGHTS -- SAMPLE SIZE -- COMPARISONS OF INTAKE DATA WITH STANDARDS -- VALIDATION OF FOOD CONSUMPTION DATA -- THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FOOD CONSUMPTION DATA BASES IN ESTIMATING PESTICIDE EXPOSURE OF CHILDREN -- WATER INTAKE -- Dietary Sources of Water -- Water Intake Estimates -- QUANTIFICATION OF CONSUMPTION DATA -- AGE-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN DIETARY PATTERNS -- ISSUES RELATED TO THE EVALUATION OF FOOD MONITORING DATA -- Differences in Consumption Among Age Groups -- Differences in Consumption within Age Groups -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- 6 Pesticide Residues -- SOURCES OF DATA ON USAGE.

THE OCCURRENCE AND FATE OF PESTICIDE RESIDUES -- PESTICIDE REGISTRATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL METHODS -- Interregional Project Number 4 -- Universities and the ARS -- METHODS FOR SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS -- Sampling -- Analysis -- Single Residue Methods -- Multiresidue Methods -- Criteria for Selecting a Method -- Single Residue Methods or Multiresidue Methods? -- Breadth of Applicability -- Detection Limits -- Accuracy and Precision -- Speed and Cost -- Instrumentation -- Validation -- MONITORING -- Federal Activities -- State Activities -- Food Processing Industry Activities -- Private Laboratories -- QUALITY CONTROLS -- LIMITATIONS OF THE DATA -- Sources of Error -- Other Limitations -- PESTICIDES IN WATER -- Groundwater -- Surface Water -- The Importance of Water Data to Infants and Children -- PESTICIDES IN INFANT FORMULA -- Infant Formula Based on Cow's Milk -- Soy-Based Infant Formula -- Theoretical Maximum Residue Contributions -- PESTICIDES IN HUMAN MILK -- DDT and Metabolites -- Dieldrin -- Lindane -- Hexachlorobenzene -- Other Cyclodiene Pesticides -- Risks to Infants from Pesticides in Human Milk -- PESTICIDES IN FOODS -- The FDA Surveillance Data -- Number of FDA Samples -- Positive Detections -- Residue Levels -- Residue Distribution -- Effects of Processing -- Apple-Based Foods -- Infant Cereal -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- 7 Estimating Exposures -- THE USED OF FOOD CONSUMPTION AND RESIDUE DATA FOR EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT -- Food Consumption Data -- Average Levels of Consumption -- Peak Levels of Consumption -- Residue Monitoring -- Combining Residue and Exposure Data -- LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO BENOMYL -- The Compound -- The Consumption Data -- The Residue Data -- Estimation of Exposure -- The Manufacturer's Field Trials -- The Manufacturer's Market Basket Survey.

FDA Surveillance Data -- The Food Industry -- A Certification Business -- Summary -- SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO ALDICARB -- The Compound -- Acute Effects of Dietary Aldicarb Exposure -- The Consumption Data -- The Residue Data -- Effects of Assumptions Regarding Residues Below the LOQ -- Estimating Dietary Exposure -- Summary -- MULTIPLE EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT: ORGANOPHOSPHATE INSECTICIDES -- Cholinesterase Inhibition -- Relative Potency of Organophosphates -- Food Consumption Data -- Residue Data -- Exposure Analysis -- Summary -- NONDIETARY EXPOSURE TO PESTICIDES -- Exposure via Parents -- Exposure Through Air -- Outdoor Air -- Indoor Air -- Exposure via Contaminated Surfaces -- Home-Use Products -- Pet Products -- Playground Equipment -- Exposure via Medications and Personal Products -- N,N-Diethyl-m-toluamide -- Lindane and Malathion -- Lanolin -- Occupational Exposures -- Exposure via Accidental Ingestion -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- 8 Estimating the Risks -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT -- Toxicological Risk Assessment -- Cancer Risk Estimation -- Additivity to Background and Low-Dose Linearity -- Nonlinearity at High Doses -- Molecular Dosimetry -- Mathematical Modeling of Cancer Risk -- Species Conversion -- Benchmark Dose -- RISK ASSESSMENT FOR INFANTS AND CHILDREN -- Pharmacokinetics -- Pregnancy, Lactation, and Nursing -- Neurotoxicity -- Multiple Exposures -- Inert Ingredients -- Considerations Specific to Children -- Exposure and Low Socioeconomic Status -- Age-Dependent Toxicity -- Genetic Susceptibility -- Polymorphism in Metabolism -- Chronic Medical Conditions -- Interactions with Medication -- Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors -- Antiepileptic Pharmaceuticals -- Other Pharmaceuticals -- Carcinogenesis -- Factors That Might Increase Risk of Cancer Among Infants and Children.

Effects of Age-Dependent Exposures -- Consumption and Exposure Data -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- REFERENCES -- Index.