Cover -- The Chemistry of Evolution -- Acknowledgements -- Preface -- Contents -- The Evolution of Earth-The Geochemical Partner of the Global Ecosystem (5 Billion Years of History) -- Introduction -- The Formation of the Atomic Elements: Abundances -- Earth's Physical Nature: Temperature and Pressure -- Earth's Atmosphere and Its Composition -- The Initial Formation of Minerals -- The Reforming of Solids from Melts: Minority Solids -- The Settling Down of Earth's Physical Nature -- The Initial Formation of the Sea and Its Contents -- Detailed Composition of the Original Sea: Availability -- Geological Periods - Chemical and Fossil Records -- Fissures in the Surface and Impacts of Meteorites -- The Geochemical Effects of Oxygen -- Conclusion -- Further Reading -- Basic Chemistry of the Ecosystem -- Introduction* -- Atoms and The Periodic Table -- Inorganic Chemistry -- Nature of Inorganic Chemical Compounds: Groups 1 to 3 and 12 to 17 -- The Nature of Transition Metal Compounds: Groups 4 to 11 -- Variable Combining Ratios and Spin States -- Important Heavy Elements -- Availability -- Non-Equilibrated Inorganic Systems: Barriers to Change -- Non-Equilibrium Inorganic Systems: Energy Storage -- Reactions and Catalysis by Inorganic Environmental Compounds, Especially Sulfides -- Summary of Inorganic Compounds Related to the Global Ecosystem -- Organic Chemistry -- Introduction to Organic Compounds of Ecological Relevance -- Stability and Reactivity of Organic Chemicals -- Stereochemistry -- The Importance of Temperature and Light: Rates of Organic Reactions -- Bringing Inorganic and Organic Chemistry Together -- Introduction -- Complex Formation: Selectivity -- Matching Redox Potentials of Inorganic and Organic Chemicals -- Electron and Proton Transfer -- The Importance of Rates of Exchange -- Selective Action of Metal Ion Complexes in Catalysis.

The Special Nature of Hydrogen -- Summary of the Basic Chemistry Relevant to Our Global Ecosystem -- Further Reading -- Energy, Order and Disorder, and Organised Systems -- Introduction -- Energy -- Order and Disorder: Equilibrium -- Some Steady States and Organisation -- Radiation Energy: Calculating its Disorder and Amount of Flow -- Optimal Rates of Energy Conversion and Optimal Retention of Energy in Cyclic Steady States: Content of a System -- Shape of Organised Systems and Energy: Maintained Form -- Evolution of a System going away from Equilibrium -- Form and Information: Multiple Component Systems -- Organisation and Compartments -- Organisation Messengers Feedback and Codes -- Energy Sources and Controlled Distribution of Energy -- Information Defined -- Cell Organisation, Equilibrium and Kinetic Constraints -- Informed Cellular Systems -- Ways of Looking at Ecological Chemical Systems: Summary -- A Note on Equilibrium Thermodynamics and Equilibrium Constants -- Further Reading -- Outline of Biological Chemical Principles: Components, Pathways and Controls -- Introduction -- Organisms: Their Classification as Thermodynamic Chemotypes -- Organisms: Their Generalised Element Content -- The Functional Value of the Elements in Organisms: Introduction to Biological Compounds -- Non-Metal Chemistry and its Basic Biological Pathways: Coding -- Informed Systems of Organic Molecules -- Pathways and Efficiency -- Structures and Maintained Flow: Containment -- The Selection of Coded Molecules: DNA(RNA) -- RNA and the Possible RNA World -- Proteins: Folding, Catalysts and Transcription Factors -- Proteins: Biological Machines in Water -- Proteins in Membranes -- Summary of Non-Metal Functions in Cells -- Why were Metal Ions Required? -- Combining Metal and Non-Metal Chemistry: Structures and Activities -- The Biological Properties of Hydrogen.

Cell Organisation and Constraints: Equilibria -- Kinetic Controls and Networks and their Energetics -- Summary -- The Magnitudes of Equilibrium Constraints in Cell Systems -- Equilibrium Redox Potential Controls -- Molecular Machines - Efficiency and Effectiveness -- References to Appendix 4c -- Further Reading -- First Steps in Evolution of Prokaryotes: Anaerobic Chemotypes Four to Three Billion Years Ago -- Introduction -- First Steps: The Evolution of Prokaryotes: General Considerations of the Origins of Anaerobes -- The Two Classes of Recognised Early Prokaryotes -- The Introduction of Coenzymes: Optimalising Basic H, C, N, O, P Distribution -- Primitive Metal Reaction Centres -- Metal/Organic Cofactors -- The Use of Light to Full Advantage -- Manganese in Cells/Oxygen Evolution -- The Molybdenum Cofactor, Moco -- Early Uses of Zinc, Calcium, Vanadium and Sodium -- Summary of Anaerobic Prokaryote Metabolism -- Energy Flow in Anaerobes -- The Polymers in Primitive Cells -- Gene Responses in Prokaryotes -- Satellite DNA: Plasmids -- Prokaryote Controls -- Internal Flows and General Movement: Sensing and Searching Chemotaxis -- Conclusion: Anaerobic Chemotypes and their Development -- Further Reading -- The Evolution of Protoaerobic and Aerobic Prokaryote Chemotypes (Three to Two Billion Years Ago) -- Introduction -- The Beginning of an Aerobic Environment: Protoaerobic Bacteria -- Protection of the Cytoplasm of Protoaerobes -- Reduction of Environmental Oxidised Compounds of Non-Metals -- The Employment of Metal Ions in Protoaerobes and the Special Cases of Molybdenum and Vanadium -- The Direct Use of Oxygen: Aerobes -- The Handling of Metals by Aerobes -- Cytoplasmic and Membrane Organisation of Proteins -- The Need for Extra Compartments -- The Periplasmic Space and Oxidative Metabolism.

Novel Forms of Control and Organisation: New Genetic Features of Aerobes -- Summary of Prokaryote Development -- Further Reading -- Unicellular Eukaryotes Chemotypes (About One and a Half Billion Years Ago?) -- Introduction -- Plant, Animal and Fungal Eukaryotes and Interactions Between them -- Connections between Eukaryotes, their Compartments and Prokaryotes -- The Organelles of Eukaryotes -- The uses of Other Compartments: Further Separate Activities -- Reproduction, Growth and Form -- The Threat of Dioxygen : The Chemistry of Protection -- Additional Distributions of Elements in Unicellular Eukaryote Compartments: the Eukaryote Metallome and the Advantages of Compartmentalised Oxygen Metabolism -- The Proteome and the Metabolome -- The Proteins for Metal Ions in Eukaryotes -- Messengers in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- The Crucial Nature of the Calcium Ion -- Minerals in Unicellular Plants and Animals and their Deposition -- Gene Development in Eukaryotes -- Mutual Dependence of Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes -- Further Reading -- Multi-Cellular Eukaryote Chemotypes (From One Billion Year Ago) -- Introduction -- The Morphological Nature of Multi-Cellular Eukaryotes -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Plants -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Fungi -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Animals -- Diversity within the Major Chemotypes -- Growth of Plants and Animals from Single Cells -- The General Chemical Changes in the Ecosystem Some one Billion Years Ago -- The Chemical Changes of the Environment -- Chemical Changes in Whole Multi-Cellular Organisms -- Novel Proteins Associated with Multi-Cellular Organisms -- New Functional uses of Elements: General Outline -- The Use of Elements in Compartments and in Signalling -- Growth and Differentiation -- The Production of Chemical Messengers between Cells in Organs -- Connective Tissues.

A Further Note on Calcium -- Light Switches in Plants and Animals -- The Protection Systems of Plants and Animals -- Changes in Genetic Structure -- Degradation Activity and Apoptosis -- Conclusion -- Further Reading -- The Evolution of Chemotypes with Nerves and a Brain (0.5 Billion Years Ago to Today) -- Introduction -- Senses -- The Development of Nerves -- The Brain -- The Physical Evolution of the Brain -- The Chemical Element Composition of the Brain -- The Brain Development as an Information Store: The Human Phenotype -- A Note on Animal Genes and Morphology -- The Biological Chemotypes of the Ecosystem: A Summary -- The Relationship between Plants, Fungi and Bacteria: A Summary -- The Relationship between Plants and Animals -- Energised Inorganic Elements and their Uses by the End of Biological Evolution -- The Direction of Biological Evolution -- Further Reading -- Evolution due to Mankind: A Completely Novel Chemotype (Less than One Hundred Thousand Years Ago) -- Introduction -- The Nature of Homo Sapiens -- The Evolution of Human Beings from 100,000 Years Ago -- The Coming of Science -- Mankind and the Detailed Use of Chemical Elements -- Mankind, Energy and External Machines -- Transport -- Human Message Systems -- Organisation and Mankind -- The Development of Self-Consciousness -- Human Genes -- Summary -- Note on Creation and Intelligent Design: Mankind's Inventions -- A Note on General Culture -- Further Reading -- Conclusion: The Inevitable Factors in Evolution -- Introduction -- The Darwinian Approach to Evolution -- Genes and Darwin's Proposals -- The General Thermodynamic View of Ecosystem Evolution in this Book -- The Chemical Sequence of the Environment -- Chemicals and their Changes in Organisms: Chemotypes -- The Continuous Gain in Use of Energy and its Degradation -- The Changing Use of Space -- The Changes in Organisation.

Symbiosis: A Form of Compartmental Collaboration.