Forensic Ballistics in Court: Interpretation and Presentation of Firearms Evidence -- Contents -- About the Author -- Introduction -- About the companion website -- 1.0 Firearms History -- 1.0.1 Introduction -- 1.0.2 The flintlock -- 1.0.3 The percussion system -- 1.0.4 The pinfire system -- 1.0.5 The rimfire system -- 1.0.6 The Dreyse needle fire system -- 1.0.7 The centre fire system -- 1.0.8 The revolver -- 1.0.9 The self-loading pistol -- Further reading -- 2.0 Weapon Types and Their Operation -- 2.0.1 Introduction -- 2.0.2 Handguns -- 2.0.3 Rifles -- 2.0.4 Shotguns -- 2.0.5 Combination weapons -- 2.0.6 Sub-machine guns -- 2.0.7 Assault rifles -- 2.0.8 Machine guns and heavy machine guns -- 2.0.9 Muzzle attachments -- 2.0.10 Important parts of a weapons mechanism -- 2.0.11 Bent and sear -- 2.0.12 Other important parts of a revolver mechanism -- 2.0.13 Hand and ratchet -- Further reading -- 2.1 Gas and Air Powered Weapons -- 2.1.1 Introduction -- 2.1.2 Weapon types -- 2.1.3 Ammunition -- 2.1.4 Considerations -- Further reading -- 2.2 Rifling Types and Their Identification -- 2.2.1 Introduction -- 2.2.2 Basics -- 2.2.3 Class characteristics -- 2.2.4 General introduction to rifling -- Additional reading -- 2.3 Home-made, Improvised and Converted Firearms -- 2.3.1 Introduction -- 2.3.2 Improvised firearms -- 2.3.3 Converting air weapons -- 2.3.4 Home-made and converted toys and replica weapons -- 2.3.5 Home-made ammunition -- Further reading -- 2.4 Antique Weapons -- 2.4.1 Introduction -- 2.4.2 Background -- 2.4.3 Defining 'antique' -- 3.0 Proof Marks -- 3.0.1 Introduction -- 3.0.2 Proof marks -- 3.0.3 Types of proof -- 3.0.4 Proof marks and the examiner -- 3.0.5 Examples of proof marks -- Further reading -- 4.0 A Brief History of Ammunition -- 4.0.1 Introduction -- 4.0.2 Basics -- Further reading -- 4.1 Ammunition Components.

4.1.1 Introduction -- 4.1.2 Basics -- 4.1.3 Ammunition types -- 4.1.4 Primer cap types -- 4.1.5 Cartridge cases -- 4.1.6 Shotgun ammunition -- Further reading -- 4.2 Bullet Types -- 4.2.1 Introduction -- 4.2.2 Basics -- 4.2.3 Bullet materials -- 4.2.4 Other bullet types -- 4.2.5 Bullet nose configuration -- 4.2.6 Bullet base configuration -- 4.2.7 Bullet lubrication -- Further reading -- 4.3 Headstamps and Other Identifying Features on Ammunition -- 4.3.1 Introduction -- 4.3.2 Basics -- 4.3.3 Clandestine ammunition -- 4.3.4 Colour coding of ammunition -- Further reading -- 4.4 Non-toxic and Frangible Bullets -- 4.4.1 Introduction -- 4.4.2 Elimination of lead in ammunition -- 4.4.3 Materials used in non-toxic ammunition -- 4.4.4 The current situation -- Further reading -- 4.5 Non-toxic Shot -- 4.5.1 Introduction -- 4.5.2 Materials used in non-toxic shotgun ammunition -- Suggested further reading -- 4.6 A Brief History of Propellants -- 4.6.1 Introduction -- 4.6.2 Basics -- 4.6.3 Black powder -- 4.6.4 Nitro propellants -- 4.6.5 Dating of ammunition -- 4.6.6 Reduced loads for target shooting -- Further reading -- 4.7 Priming Compounds -- 4.7.1 Introduction -- 4.7.2 Basics -- 4.7.3 A short history of priming compounds -- 4.7.4 Manufacture -- 4.7.5 Accidental discharge of primers -- Further reading -- 5.0 An Introduction to Ballistics -- 5.0.1 Introduction -- 5.0.2 Basics -- 5.0.3 Background -- Further reading -- 5.1 Internal Ballistics -- 5.1.1 Introduction -- 5.1.2 Basics -- 5.1.3 Recoil -- 5.1.4 Barrel pressure -- Further reading -- 5.2 External Ballistics -- 5.2.1 Introduction -- 5.2.2 Basics -- 5.2.3 Maximum range of missiles -- 5.2.4 Maximum altitude that a bullet will attain -- 5.2.5 Terminal velocity -- 5.2.6 Use of sight to compensate for bullet drop -- 5.2.7 Other influencing factors -- 5.2.8 Muzzle energy -- 5.2.9 Momentum -- Further reading.

5.3 Terminal Ballistics -- 5.3.1 Introduction -- 5.3.2 Basics -- 5.3.3 General wound ballistic concepts -- 5.3.4 Other factors influencing the wounding capabilities of a missile -- 5.3.5 Bullet performance and 'wounding capabilities' -- 5.3.6 Relative stopping power (RSP) -- 5.3.7 Bullet resistant vests (BRV) -- Further reading -- 6.0 A Brief History of Forensic Firearms Identification -- 6.0.1 Introduction -- 6.0.2 Early cases involving bullet identification -- 6.0.3 Use of photomicrographs -- 6.0.4 Identification of weapon from breech face markings -- 6.0.5 Early use of comparison microscope -- 6.0.6 Introduction of the binocular comparison microscope -- 6.0.7 Improvements in illumination -- 6.0.8 Photography of stria -- 6.0.9 Modern technology for stria comparison -- Suggested further reading -- 7.0 Basic Concepts of Striation Matching -- 7.0.1 Introduction -- 7.0.2 Basics -- 7.0.3 Identification of weapon type -- 7.0.4 Individual characteristics on cartridge cases -- 7.0.5 Formation of stria -- 7.0.6 Problematical areas -- Further reading -- 7.1 Basic Concepts in Comparison Microscopy -- 7.1.1 Introduction -- 7.1.2 Basic methodology and background to stria comparisons -- 7.1.3 Lighting used for comparison microscopy -- 7.1.4 The concept of consecutive matching stria -- 7.1.5 Obtaining control samples -- 7.1.6 Manufacturing marks on ammunition -- 7.1.7 Recovery methods for fired bullets -- 7.1.8 Conclusion -- Further reading -- 7.2 The Concept of Consecutive Matching Stria -- 7.2.1 Introduction -- 7.2.2 Basics -- 7.2.3 Arguments for and against the concept of stria comparisons -- Further reading -- 7.3 A Statistical Model to Illustrate the Concept of Individuality in Striation Matches -- 7.3.1 Introduction -- 7.3.2 Basics -- 7.3.3 Stria individuality -- 7.3.4 Philosophy -- References -- 8.0 Accidental Discharge -- 8.0.1 Introduction.

8.0.2 Basics -- 8.0.3 Trigger mechanisms -- 8.0.4 Reasons for an accidental discharge -- 8.0.5 Negligent discharges -- Further reading -- 9.0 Identification of Calibre from the Bullet Entry Hole -- 9.0.1 Introduction -- 9.0.2 Basics -- 9.0.3 Determination of bullet type -- Further reading -- 10.0 Ricochet Analysis -- 10.0.1 Introduction -- 10.0.2 Basics -- 10.0.3 Variables influencing the liability of a missile to ricochet -- Further reading -- 11.0 Bullet Penetration and Trajectory through Glass -- 11.0.1 Introduction -- 11.0.2 Glass types and glass substitutes -- 11.0.3 Deviation of missile after penetrating glass -- 11.0.4 Penetration of normal window glass -- 11.0.5 Penetration of laminated and bullet-resistant glass -- 11.0.6 Penetration of tempered or toughened glass -- 11.0.7 Determination of bullet type from the entry hole -- 11.0.8 Deflection of bullet by glass -- Further reading and references -- 12.0 Range of Firing Estimations and Bullet Hole Examinations -- 12.0.1 Introduction -- 12.0.2 Basics -- 12.0.3 Range of firing estimations for pistols and rifles -- 12.0.4 Extended range of fire estimations -- 12.0.5 Range of firing estimations on badly decomposed bodies -- 12.0.6 Bullet wipe marks -- 12.1 Chemical Tests for Range of Fire Estimations and Bullet Entry/Exit Hole Identification -- 12.1.1 Introduction -- 12.1.2 Chemical tests for range of firing estimations -- 12.1.3 Range of firing estimations on heavily bloodstained garments -- 12.1.4 Range of firing estimations for non-toxic non-lead primers -- Further reading -- 12.2 Range of Fire Estimations for Shotguns -- 12.2.1 Introduction -- 12.2.2 Basics -- 12.2.3 Shotgun cartridges fired in revolvers -- Suggested further reading -- 13.0 The Use of X-ray Photography for Projectile Identification -- 13.0.1 Introduction -- 13.0.2 Estimation of calibre from X-ray photographs -- Further reading.

14.0 Gunshot Residue Examination -- 14.0.1 Introduction -- 14.0.2 Basics -- 14.0.3 Identification of GSR Particles -- 14.0.4 The use of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive X-Ray analysis (EDX) for the detection and analysis of GSR particles -- 14.0.5 Sample collection -- 14.0.6 GSR retention -- 14.0.7 Interpretation of results -- 14.0.8 Identification of type of ammunition and country or origin from GSR composition -- 14.0.9 Environmental contaminants -- 14.0.10 Extending the period over which GSR particles can be recovered -- 14.0.11 General considerations to be made when examining GSR analysis results -- 14.0.12 Discussion -- References -- 15.0 Gun Handling Tests -- 15.0.1 Introduction -- 15.0.2 History -- 15.0.3 Methodology for the use of Ferrozine -- Further reading -- 16.0 Laser-etched Serial Numbers and Bar Codes -- 16.0.1 Introduction -- 16.0.2 Laser-etched serial numbers -- 16.0.3 Bar codes -- 16.0.4 Conclusion -- Further reading -- 17.0 Classification of Firearms-related Death -- 17.0.1 Introduction -- 17.0.2 Basics -- 17.0.3 Multiple shot suicides -- References and further reading -- 18.0 Practical Considerations in a Firearms Case from a Legal Point of View -- 18.0.1 Introduction -- 18.0.2 Key questions -- 18.0.3 Legal challenges to forensic firearms evidence in the USA -- 18.0.4 Conclusion -- Further reading and references -- 19.0 Qualifying the Expert and Cross-examination Questions -- 19.0.1 Definition -- 19.0.2 Introduction -- 19.0.3 Qualifying the expert -- 19.0.4 General background questions -- 19.0.5 Comparison microscopy -- 19.0.6 Gunshot residue -- 19.0.7 Ferrozine test -- Further reading -- 20.0 Chain of Custody -- 20.0.1 Introduction -- 20.0.2 Basics -- 20.0.3 Process -- 20.0.4 In court -- Further reading -- Appendix 1: Standard of Review: 'Daubert Trilogy'.

Appendix 2: Commercial and General Abbreviations for Bullet Configurations.