CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGEINCLUDING COAL-FIREDPOWER PLANTS -- CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE INCLUDING COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS -- CONTENTS -- PREFACE -- CAPTURING CO2 FROM COAL-FIRED POWERPLANTS: CHALLENGES FOR A COMPREHENSIVESTRATEGY* -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION: COAL AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS -- BACKGROUND: WHAT IS CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY ANDWHAT IS ITS STATUS? -- Post-Combustion CO2 Capture -- Monoethanolamine (MEA) -- Chilled ammonia (alstom) -- Ammonia (powerspan) -- Pre-Combustion CO2 Capture -- Combustion CO2 Capture -- DOE-Supported Technology Development -- ROLES FOR GOVERNMENT -- THE NEED FOR A DEMAND-PULL MECHANISM -- APPROACHES TO A DEMAND-PULL MECHANISM -- Creating Demand through a Regulatory Requirement: An Example from theSO2 New Source Performance Standards -- Creating Demand through a Price Signal: Carbon Taxes, Allowance Pricingand Auctions -- CURRENT TECHNOLOGY-PUSH MECHANISMS: DOEINVESTMENT IN CCS R&D -- Direct Spending on R&D -- Carbon capture and sequestration in the american recovery and reinvestment act of2009 (ARRA) -- Loan Guarantees and Tax Credits -- ENCOURAGING TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN THE ABSENCE OF AMARKET: ISSUES FOR CURRENT CARBON CAPTURE RD&D POLICY -- Trying to Pick a Winner: FutureGen -- What Should the Federal Government Spend on CCS TechnologyDevelopment? -- Legislation in the 110th and 111th Congresses -- Should the Federal Government Embark on a "Crash" Research andDevelopment Program? -- The Manhattan Project and Apollo Program -- DOE-Supported Energy Technology Development -- Comparisons to CO2 Capture R&D at DOE -- The Possibility of Failure: The Synthetic Fuels Corporation -- IMPLICATIONS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE LEGISLATION -- REFERENCES -- ESCAPING RADIOACTIVITY FROM COAL-FIREDPOWER PLANTS -- ABSTRACT -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. RADIOACTIVITY OF COALS AND FLY ASHES -- 3. PARTICULATE DISPERSION OF FLY ASH.

4. RADIOACTIVITY ESCAPING FROM COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS ASFINE PARTICLES -- 5. HAZARDS FROM THE RADIOACTIVITY ESCAPING FROM THESTACKS OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS -- 5.1. Hazards from the Escaping Fly Ash -- 5.2. Hazards from the Atmospheric Dispersion of Fly Ash -- 5.3. Hazards from Wall Radioactivity in Dwellings due to the Fly Ash -- 5.4. Hazards from Diffusion of Radon through Concrete -- 6. CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- INTRODUCING CCS: POTENTIAL CHANGES IN COALFIREDPOWER PLANT DESIGN, OPERATION ANDREGULATION IN A CARBON CONSTRAINED FUTURE -- ABSTRACT -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY DESIGN FORCOAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS -- 3. POWER PLANT OPERATION WITH CCS -- 3.1 Flexibility of Plants with Post-Combustion Capture -- 3.2. Flexibility of Plants with Oxyfuel Capture -- 3.3. Flexibility of IGCC Plants with CO2 Capture -- 4. PREPARING FOR WIDESPREAD DEPLOYMENT OF CCS:REGULATIONS, INCENTIVES AND CAPTURE-READY -- 4.1. Regulations and Incentives for CCS Deployment -- 4.2. Capture Ready Design and Retrofitting CO2 Capture to Existing Plants -- 5. CONCLUSION -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- SPATIAL IMPACTS OF TRADABLE PERMIT MARKETS:THE CASE OF SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS -- ABSTRACT -- I. INTRODUCTION -- II. DAMAGE FUNCTION METHODOLOGY -- Determining Health Consequences -- Quantifying Health Impacts -- III. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DAMAGE FUNCTION APPROACH -- Pollution Concentrations -- Human Exposure -- Health Impacts -- Economic Valuation -- IV. RESULTS -- Marginal Benefits -- Total Benefits -- Emission Trading -- V. CONCLUSION -- REFERENCES -- THE CARBON CYCLE: IMPLICATIONS FOR CLIMATECHANGE AND CONGRESS* -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- CARBON STORAGE, SOURCES AND SINKS -- CARBON FLUX, OR EXCHANGE, WITH THE ATMOSPHERE -- Land Surface-Atmosphere Flux -- Ocean-Atmosphere Flux -- POLICY IMPLICATIONS -- REFERENCES.

ARE CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS RISING MORERAPIDLY THAN EXPECTED?* -- SUMMARY -- RISING CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS -- COMPARING CO2 EMISSIONS WITH ESTABLISHED SCENARIOS -- Comparisons with the IPCC Scenarios -- Monitoring Emissions Trends -- REFERENCES -- CLIMATE CHANGE: FEDERAL ACTIONSWILL GREATLY AFFECT THE VIABILITYOF CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGEAS A KEY MITIGATION OPTION* -- WHY GAO DID THIS STUDY -- WHAT GAO RECOMMENDS -- WHAT GAO FOUND -- ABBREVIATIONS -- RESULTS IN BRIEF -- BACKGROUND -- BARRIERS TO CCS DEPLOYMENT INCLUDE THE HIGH COST OFCURRENT TECHNOLOGIES, REGULATORY UNCERTAINTY, AND THELACK OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY TO CONTROL CO2 EMISSIONS -- CO2 CAPTURE MUST OVERCOME SIGNIFICANTTECHNOLOGICAL HURDLES TO BE A COST-EFFECTIVETECHNOLOGY FOR COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS -- CCS Has Yet to Be Demonstrated on a Commercial Scale at a Power Plant -- Coal Gasification Technology Offers Promise in Capturing CO2 atNew Plants but Has Limitations That May Impede Its Widespread Use -- Capturing CO2 from Existing Coal-fired Power Plants RequiresSignificant Amounts of Energy and Imposes High Costs -- Regulatory and Legal Uncertainties also ComplicateCapture, Injection, and Storage of CO2 -- Confusion over Rules about Large-Volume Injections of CO2 -- Long-Term Liability Concerns over CO2 Storage and Possible Leakage -- Property Ownership Patterns May Also Affect CO2 Storage -- Uncertainty Regarding How the Clean Air Act Will Apply to Power Plants with CCS -- The Absence of a National Strategy to Control CO2 Emissions Gives NeitherIndustry Nor Government Agencies an Incentive to Invest in CCS -- Industry Has Little Incentive to Invest in CO2 Control Technologies withouta National Strategy to Control CO2 Emissions -- The Absence of a National Strategy to Control CO2 Emissions Has Constrained theFederal Government's Efforts to Plan For and Develop CCS Projects.

FEDERAL AGENCIES HAVE YET TO RESOLVE THEFULL RANGE OF ISSUES REQUIRING RESOLUTIONFOR WIDESPREAD CCS DEPLOYMENT -- DOE Has Only Recently Prioritized Research to HelpControl CO2 Emissions from Existing Power Plants -- DOE Has Achieved Some Advances with IGCC Technology -- DOE Funding Decisions Reflect Agency's Focus on IGCC -- IGCC Technology's Potential for Reducing CO2 Emissions Is Uncertain -- DOE Has Thus Far Achieved Limited Success inReducing CO2 Emissions from Existing Power Plants -- DOE Has Recently Focused More Attention on Existing Plants -- EPA Has Begun to Address Regulatory Uncertainty Concerning CO2Injection and Storage, but Key Issues Remain Unresolved -- EPA Has Issued a Proposed Rule under the SDWAon Permitting Large-Volume CO2 Injections -- Financial Responsibility Requirements -- Key Legal and Regulatory Issues outside of theSDWA Have Been Largely Unaddressed -- Other Key Issues that Should Be Proactively Addressedto Support a National CCS Framework -- Property Rights and Liability Issues Related toCO2 Injection on Both Federal and Nonfederal Lands -- CO2 Pipeline Regulation -- Detailed Assessment of Feasible CO2 Storage Sites -- Potential Public Opposition Arising from HealthConcerns over CO2 Storage and Transport -- Accounting System for Measuring CO2 Stored byCCS for Use in a CO2 Emissions Trading Plan -- CONCLUSIONS -- RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXECUTIVE ACTION -- AGENCY COMMENTS AND OUR EVALUATION -- APPENDIX I: OBJECTIVES, SCOPE, AND METHODOLOGY -- APPENDIX II: COMMENTS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY -- GAO COMMENTS -- APPENDIX III: COMMENTS FROM THEENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY -- GAO COMMENTS -- REFERENCES -- INDEX.