Front Cover -- Encyclopedia of Caves -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Contents by Subject Area -- List of Contributors -- Guide to the Encyclopedia -- Subject Areas -- Organization -- Article Format -- Cross-References -- Bibliography -- Index -- Preface -- A -- Adaptation to Low Food -- Introduction -- Types of Food Scarcity -- What to Feed in Caves -- Food Input -- Chemoautotrophy -- Influence of Cave Type -- Food-Finding -- Appendages and Sensory Equipment -- Behavior -- Other Factors -- Back to the Network -- General Energy Demand -- Aquatic Cave Animals -- Terrestrial Cave Animals -- Activity -- Excitement and Aggression -- The Conflicts of Body Size -- Ectothermy and Neoteny -- Hypoxic Conditions -- Character Reduction -- Back to the Network -- Life History Characters -- Egg Size -- Growth Rate -- Longevity -- A Case Study -- Back to the Network -- Periodic Starvation -- Fat Accumulation -- Energy Demand -- Back to the Network -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Adaptive Shifts -- Theory of Adaptive Shift -- Factors Underlying Adaptive Shifts into Cave Habitats -- Intrinsic Factors -- Preadaptation -- Genetic Repertoire -- Founder Events and Subsequent Population Flush and Crash Cycles -- Response to Stress -- Mating Behavior and Hybridization -- Extrinsic Factors -- Presence of Cavernicolous Habitats -- Presence of Exploitable Food Resources -- Environmental Stresses -- Ancestral Habitats -- Case Studies -- Hawai'i -- Cixiid Planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha: Cixiidae) -- Terrestrial Isopods (Crustacea: Isopoda: Philosciidae) -- Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) -- Wolf Spiders (Arachnida: Lycosidae) -- Moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) -- Other Islands -- Continents -- Conclusions -- The Future -- See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Anchihaline (ANCHIALINE) Caves and Fauna.

Geography and Some Historical Data -- Cave Morphology and Hydrology -- Noncrustacean Groups in the Anchihaline Fauna -- Anchihaline Crustacea -- Biogeography -- Biology and Ecological Distribution of Inhabitants -- Trophic Relations -- Theoretical Importance of Anchihaline Habitats -- Anchihaline Fauna and Humans -- See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Ancient Cavers in Eastern North America -- Introduction -- Cave Archaeology in Eastern North America -- Archaeology of the Mammoth Cave Area -- Prehistoric Archaeology in the World's Longest Cave -- Chronology -- Archaeological Evidence -- Interpretations -- Conclusion -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Asellus aquaticus: A Model System for Historical Biogeography -- Introduction -- Development of Troglomorphies -- Postojna-Planina Cave System -- Broader View -- Asellus Kosswigi -- Continental Scale -- Prospects for the Future -- See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Astyanax mexicanus: A Model Organism for Evolution and Adaptation -- Evolution, Adaptation, and Model Organisms -- Astyanax Mexicanus as a Model Organism -- Natural History of Astyanax Mexicanus -- Troglomorphic Traits -- Developmental Basis of Troglomorphic Traits -- Inheritance and Genetic Basis of Troglomorphic Traits -- Evolution of Troglomorphic Traits -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- B -- Bats -- Introduction -- Cave Bats and their Distribution -- Functions of Cave Roosts -- Courtship and Mating -- Rearing Young -- Hibernation -- Costs and Benefits of Living in Caves -- Benefits -- Costs -- Conservation and Management -- Ecosystem Services Provided by Cave-Roosting Bats -- Human Disturbance -- Habitat Destruction and Alteration -- Threats to Cave Bats from White-Nose Syndrome -- Threats to Cave Bats from Wind Turbines -- The Paradox of Vampire Bats.

See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Beetles -- Introduction -- Adaptations -- Systematics of Cave Beetles -- Geographical Distribution and Colonization -- Ecology -- Importance and Protection -- Bibliography -- Behavioral Adaptations -- Comparison of Behavior Patterns in Cave-Dwelling Animals and Their Epigean Relatives -- Food and Feeding Behavior -- Reproductive Behavior -- Aggressive Behavior -- Discussion -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Breakdown -- Breakdown Morphology -- Small-Scale Features -- Large-Scale Features -- Breakdown Mechanics -- Geologic Influences on Breakdown Processes -- Geologic Processes That Initiate Breakdown -- Crystal Wedging or Limestone Replacement to Initiate Breakdown -- Role of Breakdown in Speleological Processes -- See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Burnsville Cove, Virginia -- Introduction -- Physical and Geologic Setting -- History of Exploration -- Descriptions of Caves -- Breathing Cave -- Aqua Cave -- Butler Cave -- Better Forgotten Cave -- Boundless Cave -- Robins Rift -- Bobcat Cave (Chestnut Ridge Cave System) -- Blarney Stone Cave (Chestnut Ridge Cave System) -- Burns Chestnut Ridge Cave (Chestnut Ridge Cave System) -- Barberry Cave -- Buckwheat Cave -- Blind Faith Cave -- Battered Bar Cave -- Helictite Cave -- By-the-Road Cave -- Basswood Cave -- Fuhl's Paradise Pit -- Water Sinks Cave (The Subway) -- Buckets of Smoke Cave -- Wishing Well Cave -- Special Attributes -- Bibliography -- C -- Camps -- See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Castleguard Cave, Canada -- Geographical Setting -- Morphology and Genesis -- Modern Hydrology -- Cave Sediments, Speleothems, and Dating -- The Climate of the Cave -- The Fauna of Castleguard -- Conclusions -- Bibliography -- Cave Dwellers in the Middle East -- Introduction -- Location and Present Environment.

Cave Deposits and Processes -- The Prehistoric and Historical Sequence of Cave Occupations in the Middle East -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Cave Ecosystems -- Definition and Boundaries -- Physical Environment and Habitat Zones -- Energy Flux and Limitation -- Nutrients -- Connectivity and Disturbance in Karst Ecosystems -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Cave, Definition of -- Definitions and Points of View -- Caves as Places for Exploration -- Caves as Geological Repositories and Caves as Parts of Groundwater Flow Paths -- Caves as Habitat -- Types of Caves -- Bibliography -- Cavefish of China -- The Distribution and Diversity of Chinese Cavefish -- Biology of Chinese Cavefish -- The Characteristics of Chinese Cavefish -- Morphology and Adaptation -- Changes in Body Shape -- Humpback and Horn -- Sensory Apparatus -- Specialized Appendages -- Adipose Storage -- Eye Degeneration -- Loss of Pigmentation -- Disappearance of Scales -- Phylogenesis, Speciation Mechanisms, and Biogeography -- Research and Conservation -- See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Chemoautotrophy -- Introduction -- Terminology Explained -- Carbon Fixation Pathways -- Major Chemolithoautotrophic Microbial Groups -- Hydrogen -- Reduced Inorganic Sulfur Compounds -- Ammonia and Nitrite -- Iron and Manganese -- One-Carbon Compounds -- Chemolithoautotrophy in Caves and Karst Settings -- Sulfur Cycle -- Nitrogen Cycle -- Methane Cycle -- Iron and Manganese Bacteria -- Chemolithoautotrophically-Based Cave Ecosystems -- Chemolithoautotrophy in the Future -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Clastic Sediments in Caves -- Basic Physical Properties -- Stratigraphy -- Sediment Production -- Sediment Transport and Deposition -- Stream Sediments -- Gravity Sediments -- Geomorphic Perspective.

See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Closed Depressions in Karst Areas -- Types of Closed Depressions -- Solution Dolines as the Diagnostic Forms of Karst Surfaces -- Morphology and Size of Dolines -- Locations and Relationships with the Topographical and Geomorphological Settings -- The Structure of Dolines -- Hydrological Behavior and Related Solution Processes in Dolines -- Other Processes in Doline Evolution -- Examples of Evolution -- Populations of Dolines Linked to Specific Environmental Conditions -- Summary of Solution Dolines -- Other Types of Dolines -- Collapse Dolines -- Subsidence Dolines -- Intersection Dolines -- Cover Dolines and Other Types -- Uvalas and Compound and Polygenetic Sinks -- Depressions in Karst Areas -- See Also the Following Article -- Bibliography -- Coastal Caves -- Introduction -- Sea Caves -- Flank Margin Caves -- Blue Holes -- Conclusion -- See Also the Following Articles -- Bibliography -- Contamination of Cave Waters by Heavy Metals -- Natural and Anthropogenic Sources -- Environmental Metal Chemistry -- General Chemistry -- Iron and Manganese -- Trace and Contaminant Metals -- Metal Storage and Transport -- Schematic Scenarios -- Speleothems and Cave Deposits -- Suspended and Bed Sediments -- Storm-Enhanced Transport of Sediment-Associated Metals -- Summary -- Bibliography -- Contamination of Cave Waters by Nonaqueous Phase Liquids -- NAPL Characteristics and Sources -- Transport Into Karst Aquifers -- Epikarst -- Fractures, Open Drains, and Sinking Streams -- Storage in Karst Aquifers -- Pools in Conduits -- Fractures -- Matrix and Vugs -- Sediment -- Detection of NAPL in Karst -- Springs and Caves -- Wells -- Soils -- Summary -- Bibliography -- Cosmogenic Isotope Dating of Cave Sediments -- Introduction -- Relative Versus Absolute Dating Techniques -- Burial Dating With Cosmogenic Nuclides.

Requirements for Burial Dating.