ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS -- Contents -- About the Editor -- List of Contributors -- Series Preface -- Preface -- Part One FUNDAMENTAL BACKGROUND -- 1 Overview of Composite Materials and their Automotive Applications -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Polymer Composite Materials -- 1.2.1 Non-Structural Composites -- 1.2.2 Semi-Structural Composites -- 1.2.3 Structural Composites -- 1.2.4 Laminated Composites -- 1.2.5 Textile Composites -- 1.2.6 Hybrid Composites -- 1.3 Application of Composite Materials in the Automotive Industry -- 1.3.1 Crashworthiness -- 1.3.2 Composite Driveshaft and Spring -- 1.3.3 Other Applications -- 1.4 Green Composites for Automotive Applications -- 1.5 Modelling the Mechanical Behaviour of Composite Materials -- 1.5.1 Modelling the Elastic Properties of Unidirectional Composites -- 1.5.2 Modelling of Laminated and Textile Composites -- 1.5.2.1 Analytical Modelling -- 1.5.2.2 Numerical FE Modelling -- 1.6 Discussion -- 1.7 Conclusion -- References -- 2 High-Volume Thermoplastic Composite Technology for Automotive Structures -- 2.1 Introduction - Opportunities for Thermoplastic Composites -- 2.2 Recent Developments in Automotive TPCs -- 2.3 Case Study: Rapid Stamp-Formed Thermoplastic Composites -- 2.3.1 Materials Selection: Exploring the Potential of Aligned Fibre TPCs -- 2.3.2 Demonstrator Beam Component -- 2.3.3 TPC Process Development -- 2.3.4 Beam Manufacture -- 2.3.5 Demonstrator Beam Structural Performance -- 2.3.6 Environmental Impact Assessment -- 2.3.7 Economic Analysis -- 2.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 3 Development of Low-Cost Carbon Fibre for Automotive Applications -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Research Drivers: Energy Efficiency -- 3.3 Lightweight Automotive Materials -- 3.4 Barriers to Carbon Fibre Adoption in the Automotive Industry.

3.5 Global Production and the Market for Carbon Fibre -- 3.6 Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Programme -- 3.6.1 Project Aims -- 3.6.2 Precursor Materials -- 3.6.2.1 Commodity PAN-Based Precursors -- 3.6.2.2 Lignin-Based Precursors -- 3.6.2.3 Polyolefin-Based Precursors -- 3.6.3 Advanced Processing Techniques -- 3.6.3.1 Microwave Assisted Plasma Processing -- 3.6.3.2 Advanced Stabilisation/Crosslinking -- 3.6.3.3 Plasma Oxidation -- 3.6.3.4 Advanced Surface Treatment and Sizing -- 3.6.4 Integration: Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Pilot Line -- 3.7 International Cooperation -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Part Two IMPACT AND CRASH ANALYSIS -- 4 Mechanical Properties of Advanced Pore Morphology Foam Composites -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Cellular Materials -- 4.2.1 Mechanical Behaviour of Cellular Materials -- 4.2.2 Energy Absorption Capabilities of Cellular Materials -- 4.2.3 Influence of Pore Fillers -- 4.2.4 Strain Rate Sensitivity of Cellular Materials -- 4.3 Advanced Pore Morphology Foam -- 4.4 Mechanical Properties of Single APM Foam Elements -- 4.5 Behaviour of Composite APM Foam -- 4.5.1 Compressive Loading of Confined APM Foam Elements without Bonding -- 4.5.2 Partially Bonded APM Foam Elements -- 4.5.3 Fully Bonded APM Foam Elements - Syntactic Structure -- 4.6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 5 Automotive Composite Structures for Crashworthiness -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Traffic Safety -- 5.3 Alternative Vehicles -- 5.4 Selective Overview of Worldwide Crash Tests -- 5.5 Structural Crash Management -- 5.5.1 Front Crash -- 5.5.2 Side Crash -- 5.6 Composite Materials for Crash Applications -- 5.6.1 Performance Metrics for Energy Absorbing Structures -- 5.6.2 Energy Absorbing Deformation Mechanisms in Composite Profiles -- 5.7 Energy Absorption of Composite Profiles -- 5.7.1 Fibre Material -- 5.7.2 Matrix Material -- 5.7.3 Fibre Volume Fraction.

5.7.4 Fibre Architecture -- 5.7.5 Trigger -- 5.7.6 Geometry -- 5.7.7 Test Speed -- 5.7.8 Test Direction -- 5.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 6 Crashworthiness Analysis of Composite and Thermoplastic Foam Structure for Automotive Bumper Subsystem -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Materials for Automotive Applications -- 6.3 Composite and Thermoplastic Materials -- 6.4 Numerical Modelling of Fiat 500 Frontal Transverse Beam -- 6.5 Standards for Low-Speed Frontal Impact -- 6.6 Bumper Beam Thickness Determination -- 6.7 Results and Discussion -- 6.8 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Hybrid Structures Consisting of Sheet Metal and Fibre Reinforced Plastics for Structural Automotive Applications -- 7.1 Introduction and Motivation -- 7.2 Conventional Method for the Development of Composite Structures -- 7.3 Approaches to Automotive Lightweight Construction -- 7.4 Requirements for Automotive Structures -- 7.4.1 Mechanical Requirements -- 7.4.2 Load Adapted Design -- 7.4.3 Derivation of Reference Structures -- 7.5 Simulation -- 7.6 Manufacturing -- 7.6.1 Overview -- 7.6.2 Prepreg Press Technology: Basic Investigations and Process Parameters -- 7.6.3 Prepreg Press Technology: Bonding of Composite Material and Sheet Metal -- 7.7 Testing -- 7.7.1 Quasi-Static Tests -- 7.7.2 Crash Tests -- 7.8 New Methodology for the Product Engineering of Hybrid Lightweight Structures -- 7.9 Conclusion -- References -- 8 Nonlinear Strain Rate Dependent Micro-Mechanical Composite Material Model for Crashworthiness Simulation -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Micro-Mechanical Formulation -- 8.2.1 Equations for Micro-Mechanical Model -- 8.2.1.1 Constitutive Equations for Composite Materials -- 8.2.1.2 Micro-Mechanics Constitutive Model -- 8.2.1.3 Constitutive Matrices and Stress Update for the Micro-Model -- 8.2.2 Failure Analysis -- 8.2.3 Finite Element Implementation.

8.2.3.1 Equations in Incremental Form -- 8.2.3.2 Localisation and Modification -- 8.2.4 Verification Examples -- 8.3 Strain Rate Dependent Effects -- 8.3.1 Strain Rate Effect Introduction and Review -- 8.3.1.1 Strain Rate Effect on Polymer Resin -- 8.3.1.2 State Variable Modelling Overview -- 8.3.2 One-Dimensional Equation and Material Constant Determination -- 8.3.2.1 One-Dimensional Constitutive Equation -- 8.3.2.2 Material Constant Determination -- 8.3.3 Three-Dimensional Constitutive Equations -- 8.3.3.1 Original Flow Equation -- 8.3.3.2 Modified Equations with Shear Correction Factor -- 8.3.3.3 Three-Dimensional Extension of Internal Stress Evolution Law -- 8.3.4 Finite Element Implementation -- 8.3.4.1 Shell Element Simulation -- 8.3.4.2 Solid Element Simulation -- 8.4 Numerical Results -- 8.5 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Design Solutions to Improve CFRP Crash-Box Impact Efficiency for Racing Applications -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Composite Structures for Crashworthy Applications -- 9.3 Geometrical and Material Characterisation of the Impact Attenuator -- 9.4 Experimental Test -- 9.5 Finite Element Analysis and LS-DYNA -- 9.6 Comparison between Numerical and Experimental Analysis -- 9.7 Investigation of the Optimal Solution -- 9.8 Conclusion -- References -- Part Three DAMAGE AND FAILURE -- 10 Fracture and Failure Mechanisms for Different Loading Modes in Unidirectional Carbon Fibre/Epoxy Composites -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Delamination Failure -- 10.3 Objectives -- 10.4 Experimental Programme -- 10.4.1 Materials and Laminate Manufacturing -- 10.4.2 Testing Methods -- 10.4.2.1 Mode I Test Method -- 10.4.2.2 Mixed Mode I/II: ADCB Test -- 10.4.2.3 Mixed Mode I/II: MMB Test -- 10.4.2.4 Mode II Test Method -- 10.5 Numerical Simulations -- 10.5.1 Virtual Crack Closure Technique -- 10.5.2 Two-Step Extension Method -- 10.5.3 Cohesive Zone Model.

10.6 Fractography -- 10.7 Results and Discussion -- 10.7.1 Experimental Results -- 10.7.2 Numerical Results -- 10.7.3 Fractographic Analysis -- 10.7.4 Stress State at the Crack Front -- 10.8 Conclusion -- References -- 11 Numerical Simulation of Damages in FRP Laminated Structures under Transverse Quasi-Static or Low-Velocity Impact Loads -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Theory -- 11.2.1 Theory of Finite Element Method -- 11.2.2 Damage Models -- 11.2.2.1 In-Plane Damage -- 11.2.2.2 Theory of Traditional Cohesive Element for Modelling Delamination -- 11.3 Techniques for Overcoming Numerical Instability in Simulation of Delamination Propagation -- 11.3.1 Artificial Damping Technique -- 11.3.2 Move-Limit Technique Enforced on Cohesive Zone -- 11.3.3 Adaptive Cohesive Model -- 11.3.3.1 Rate-Independent Adaptive Cohesive Model -- 11.3.3.2 Rate-Dependent Adaptive Cohesive Model -- 11.4 Numerical Examples -- 11.4.1 DCB Problem -- 11.4.1.1 Standard Numerical Simulations -- 11.4.1.2 Artificial Damping Technique -- 11.4.1.3 Move-Limit Technique -- 11.4.1.4 Rate-Independent ACM -- 11.4.1.5 Rate-Dependent ACM -- 11.4.2 Low-Velocity Impact Problem -- 11.5 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Building Delamination Fracture Envelope under Mode I/Mode II Loading for FRP Composite Materials -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Experimental Studies -- 12.3 Mode I Delamination Testing: Double Cantilever Bending Test Analysis and Results -- 12.4 Mode II Delamination Testing: End Notched Flexure Test Analysis and Results -- 12.5 Mixed Mode I/II Delamination Testing: Mixed-Mode Bending Test Analysis and Results -- 12.6 Fracture Failure Envelope -- 12.7 Conclusion -- Nomenclature -- References -- Part Four CASE STUDIES AND DESIGNS -- 13 Metal Matrix Composites for Automotive Applications -- 13.1 Automotive Technologies -- 13.1.1 Current Landscape -- 13.1.2 Alternative Technologies.

13.1.2.1 Hybrid Vehicles.