Table of Contents -- Preface XIII -- Abbreviations XV -- Treaty of Lisbon: A Note on Terminology XIX -- Bibliography XXIII -- CHAPTER I Voluntary Export Restraints -- 1 Introduction 1 -- 1.1 A Word on the Concepts and the Notion of VERs 3 -- 1.2 Some Factual and Legal Observations 6 -- 1.3 Outline of the Thesis 10 -- 2 The Political Economy of Voluntary Export Restraints 14 -- 2.1 The Economy of Voluntary Export Restraints 15 -- 2.1.1 The Impact of VERs on Price Levels 16 -- 2.1.2 The Creation of Rent-Seeking Activities 19 -- 2.1.3 The Effect of VERs on Different Import Sources 20 -- 2.1.4 The Impact of VERs on Domestic Output 22 -- 2.1.5 Summary 23 -- 2.2 The Politics of Voluntary Export Restraints 24 -- 2.2.1 The Political Advantages of VERs for the Government and the Competitors of the Importing Country 24 -- 2.2.2 The Political Advantages for the Government and the Competitors in the Exporting Country 31 -- 3 The History of Voluntary Export Restraints 34 -- 3.1 The Emergence of VERs in the Trade Relations of the EC - The Example of Japan 37 -- 3.1.1 Japan's Accession to the GATT 38 -- 3.1.2 Recourse to GATT Article XXXV 40 -- 3.1.3 The Replacement of the EC Member State Representations by the Community within the GATT 44 -- 3.2 Common Commercial Policy versus National Measures 46 -- 3.2.1 The Japanese VERs on Motor Cars 46 -- 3.2.2 The EC - Japan VER on Video Cassette Recorders (VCRs) 52 -- 3.2.3 The EC's Controversial Perception of VERs 56 -- 4 The Popularity of Voluntary Export Restraints and the Rarity of Case Law 62 -- 4.1 Understanding the Functioning and Popularity of VERs 62 -- 4.2 The Rarity of Judicial Decisions on VERs 67 -- 4.2.1 The EC's Challenge of the U.S.-Japan Arrangement on Semi-Conductors 71 -- a) The Meaning of "Measures" Covered by GATT Article XI 74.

b) The Degree of Government Involvement Necessary to Be Caught under GATT Article XI 76 -- c) Brief Analysis of the Conclusions of the Panel 79 -- 4.2.2 The U.S. Consumers Union's Challenge of the VERs on Steel 82 -- a) The Affirmative Findings of the Court of Appeals 83 -- b) The Dissenting Opinion of Circuit Judge Leventhal 87 -- 4.3 Preliminary Conclusion 90 -- CHAPTER II The Relationship of WTO Law and EU Law -- 1 The Status of International Agreements in the EU Legal Order 93 -- 1.1 International Agreements as "Integral Part" of EU Law 94 -- 1.2 The Doctrine of Direct Effect 95 -- 1.3 The Classification of International Agreementsin the Hierarchy of Norms 102 -- 1.4 The Judicial Application of International Agreements 103 -- 2 The Domestic Legal Status of the WTO/GATT 107 -- 2.1 The Approach of the EC Institutions in the Case of the WTO/GATT 107 -- 2.2 The Reluctance of the Court of Justice to Grant Direct Effect to WTO Rules 110 -- 2.2.1 Flexibility - An Argument for any Occasion? 111 -- 2.2.2 Reciprocity - The Imperfection of Mutual Commitments 115 -- 2.2.3 Dispute Settlement - Negotiation rather than Adjudication? 118 -- 2.3 The Situation after the Entry into Force of the WTO Agreement and its Annexes 119 -- 2.3.1 Cases on the Effect of WTO Provisions 119 -- 2.3.2 Cases on the Effect of WTO Dispute Settlement Body Decisions 131 -- 3 Invocability of Directly Effective WTO Provisions 139 -- 3.1 Locus Standi under Article 263 TFEU (ex Article 230 EC Treaty) 141 -- 3.2 Reference for a Preliminary Ruling under Article 267 TFEU (ex Article 234 EC Treaty) 147 -- 3.3 A Short Comment on Liability 149 -- 4 Preliminary Conclusion 154 -- CHAPTER IIIThe Boundaries of Challenging Voluntary Export Restraints within the EU Legal Order -- 1 Reliance on the Agreement on Safeguards before the Courts 161.

1.1 The Implementation of the Agreement on Safeguards in the EU Legal Order 162 -- 1.1.1 Relationship between the Agreement on Safeguards and GATT Article XIX 165 -- 1.1.2 The Regional Application of Safeguard Measures 173 -- 1.1.3 The Conduct of an Investigation 182 -- 1.1.4 The Legal Prerequisites of Safeguard Measures 188 -- a) Increased Quantities and Conditions of Import 188 -- b) The Determination of "Serious Injury" or Threat thereof 190 -- c) The Causal Link between Imports and Injury 194 -- d) The Notion of "Likeor Directly Competitive Products" 197 -- aa) The "Two-Step Approach" versus the "Aim and Effects Test"in the Differentiation of Products 199 -- bb) The Determination of "Like Products" 204 -- cc) The Determination of "Directly Competitive" Products 209 -- dd) Lessons for Safeguard Investigations 213 -- 1.2 Evaluation under the "Implementation Principle" 220 -- 1.2.1 Clear Reference to the Agreement on Safeguards? 221 -- 1.2.2 Intention to Implement the Agreement on Safeguards? 223 -- 1.3 Preliminary Conclusion 226 -- 2 Challenging Practices Inconsistent with the Agreement on Safeguards under the Trade Barriers Regulation (TBR) 227 -- 2.1 The Position of Private Parties under the Trade Barriers Regulation 231 -- 2.2 The Court of First Instance Ruling on the Trade Barriers Regulation in FICF et al. v. Commissio 236 -- 2.2.1 Findings on Substantive Matters 238 -- a) The Definition of "Obstacle to Trade" 238 -- b) The Interpretation of "Adverse Trade Effects" 240 -- c) The Requirement of "Community Interests" 241 -- 2.2.2 Findings on Procedural Matters 244 -- a) The Right to a Fair Hearing 244 -- b) The Non-Binding Nature of Time-Limits 245 -- 2.3 Preliminary Conclusion 246 -- 3 Applicability of EU Competition Law to VERs 248 -- 3.1 The Commission's Approach to Privately Negotiated VERs and Other Restrictions on Trade 248.

3.2 The Approach of the European Courts Regarding Immunity from Competition Liability due to Government Involvement 254 -- 3.3 Preliminary Conclusion 270 -- CHAPTER IV The Boundaries of Challenging Voluntary Export Restraints within the WTO Dispute Settlement System -- 1 Government Involvement 275 -- 1.1 The Concept of "Governmental" Measure 275 -- 1.2 The Degree of Government Involvement Required for there to be "Encouragement" or "Support" under Article 11:3 Agreement on Safeguards 277 -- 1.3 The Application of Domestic Competition Laws versus "Effects on Competition"-Test 280 -- 1.3.1 The Nature and Effect of Export Cartels 284 -- 1.3.2 The Limitations of Positive Comity 286 -- 1.3.3 Advocating an "Effects on Competition"-Test under the Agreement on Safeguards 292 -- 2 The Application of "Non-violation" Complaints to Competition Law Matters 296 -- 2.1 "Measure" as Practice Tolerated or Required by Domestic Regulations 298 -- 2.2 Different Terms - Similar Meanings 303 -- 3 Preliminary Conclusion 304 -- CHAPTER V Summing Up the "Non-Complaint" Situationof Voluntary Export Restraints -- 1 VERs: Flexible Enough to Bend (not Break) the Law? 308 -- 1.1 The "No-Fault" Insurance Protection 309 -- 1.2 Security and Predictability for All Economic Operators 310 -- 2 The (In)Availability of Legal Remedies to Private Economic Operators 311 -- 2.1 No Direct Access of Private Parties to the WTO Dispute Settlement System 312 -- 2.2 Incomplete Access of Private Parties to Domestic and/or Community Courts 313 -- 2.2.1 Limited Invocability of WTO Provisions and DSB Reports 315 -- 2.2.2 Denial of Compensation for Damages 317 -- 2.2.3 Insufficient Reach of EU Competition Law 319 -- 3 Targeting the "Non-Complaint" Situation by Introducing an "Effects on Competition"-Test 321.