Metal Contamination of Food -- Contents -- Preface to the third edition -- Preface to the second edition -- Preface to the first edition -- Part I: The Metals We Consume -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Ash -- 1.1.1 Ash and the early food analysts -- 1.1.2 A nineteenth-century view on food ash -- 1.1.3 Ash in the modern food laboratory -- 1.2 The metals in food -- 1.2.1 Chemical properties of the metals -- 1.2.2 Representative and transition metals -- 1.3 Distribution of the metals in the environment -- 1.3.1 Metals in human tissue -- 1.3.2 Metals in soil -- 1.3.2.1 Soil as a source of plant trace elements -- 1.3.2.2 Variations in the metal content of soils -- 1.3.2.3 Soil metal availability -- 1.3.2.4 Metal transport and location within the plant -- 1.3.2.5 Soil metal speciation -- 2 Metals in food -- 2.1 The metal components of food -- 2.2 Why are we interested in metals in food? -- 2.2.1 Functions of the trace elements -- 2.2.2 New trace elements -- 2.3 The toxic metals -- 2.4 Effects of metals on food quality -- 2.5 How much metal do we consume with our food? -- 2.5.1 Estimating metal intakes -- 2.5.1.1 Surveillance methods for assessing intake -- 2.5.1.2 Duplicate diet method for intake estimation -- 2.5.2 Comparison of methods of assessment of metal intakes -- 2.6 Assessing risks from metals in food -- 3 Metal analysis of food -- 3.1 The determination of metals in foods and beverages -- 3.1.1 The first step in analysis: obtaining a representative sample -- 3.1.2 Prevention of contamination -- 3.1.3 Drying of samples -- 3.1.4 Purity of chemical reagents and water -- 3.1.5 Glassware and other equipment -- 3.2 Preparation of samples for analysis: digestion of organic matter -- 3.2.1 Dry ashing -- 3.2.2 Wet digestion techniques -- 3.2.2.1 Nitric acid digestion -- 3.2.2.2 Nitric-sulphuric acids digestion -- 3.2.2.3 Use of perchloric acid.

3.2.2.4 Hydrofluoric acid -- 3.2.3 Microwave digestion -- 3.3 End-determination methods for metal analysis -- 3.3.1 Atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) -- 3.3.1.1 Background correction -- 3.3.1.2 Use of slurries and flow injection in AAS -- 3.3.1.3 Speeding up AAS -- 3.3.2 Spectrofluorimetry -- 3.3.3 Inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (ICP-S) -- 3.3.3.1 Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) -- 3.3.3.2 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) -- 3.3.4 Other analytical techniques for trace elements -- 3.4 Determination of elemental species -- 3.4.1 Methodology for the determination of metal species -- 3.4.1.1 Chemical methods of speciation -- 3.4.1.2 Hyphenated techniques for metal speciation -- 3.5 Analytical quality control -- 4 How metals get into food -- 4.1 Metals in the soil -- 4.1.1 Uptake of metals by plants -- 4.1.1.1 Accumulator plants -- 4.1.1.2 Geobotanical indicators -- 4.1.2 Effects of agricultural practices on soil metal content -- 4.1.2.1 Metals in agricultural fertilisers -- 4.1.2.2 Metals in sewage sludge -- 4.1.2.3 Metal uptake from agrochemicals -- 4.1.3 Industrial contamination as a source of metals in food -- 4.1.3.1 Metal contamination from mining operations -- 4.1.3.2 Metal contamination from metal industries -- 4.1.3.3 Emission of metals from coal -- 4.1.3.4 Problems of use of brownfield sites -- 4.1.4 Geophagia -- 4.2 Metal contamination of food during processing -- 4.2.1 Contamination of food from plant and equipment -- 4.2.2 Metal pick-up during canning -- 4.2.2.1 'Tin' cans -- 4.2.2.2 Aluminium containers -- 4.2.3 Contamination of food during catering operations -- 4.2.3.1 Metal cooking utensils -- 4.2.3.2 Ceramic ware -- 4.2.3.3 Enamelled ware -- 4.2.3.4 Other domestic sources of metal contamination of food -- 4.3 Food fortification.

4.3.1 Regulations and current practice regarding fortification of foods -- 4.3.1.1 UK regulations -- 4.3.1.2 Australian and New Zealand regulations -- 4.3.2 Foods commonly fortified -- 4.3.2.1 RTE breakfast cereals -- 4.3.2.2 Functional foods -- 4.3.3 Natural fortification of foods with metals -- 5 Metals in food and the law -- 5.1 Why do we have food legislation? -- 5.1.1 International and national legislation -- 5.1.1.1 UK legislation on metals in food -- 5.1.1.2 US legislation on metals in food -- 5.1.1.3 Legislation in Australia and elsewhere in the English-speaking world -- 5.1.1.4 International standardisation and harmonisation of food laws -- 5.1.1.5 European Community food regulations -- 5.2 Codes of practice -- Part II: The Individual Metals -- 6 The persistent contaminants: lead, mercury, cadmium -- 6.1 Lead -- 6.1.1 Chemical and physical properties of lead -- 6.1.2 Production and uses -- 6.1.3 Lead in the human body -- 6.1.4 Biological effects of lead -- 6.1.5 Lead in food and beverages -- 6.1.5.1 Lead in meat and offal -- 6.1.5.2 Lead in canned foods -- 6.1.5.3 Lead in wines -- 6.1.5.4 Lead in home-grown vegetables -- 6.1.5.5 Lead in water -- 6.1.6 Adventitious sources of dietary lead -- 6.1.6.1 Lead in alcoholic beverages -- 6.1.6.2 Lead in dietary supplements -- 6.1.6.3 Lead in plastic packing -- 6.1.7 Dietary intake of lead -- 6.1.7.1 Lead in children's diets -- 6.1.8 Analysis of foodstuffs for lead -- 6.2 Mercury -- 6.2.1 Chemical and physical properties of mercury -- 6.2.2 Environmental distribution of mercury -- 6.2.3 Production and uses of mercury -- 6.2.4 Biological effects of mercury -- 6.2.5 Mercury in food -- 6.2.6 Analysis of foodstuffs for mercury -- 6.3 Cadmium -- 6.3.1 Chemical and physical properties of cadmium -- 6.3.2 Production and uses of cadmium -- 6.3.3 Cadmium in food -- 6.3.4 Cadmium in water and other beverages.

6.3.5 Dietary intake of cadmium -- 6.3.6 Uptake and accumulation of cadmium by the body -- 6.3.7 Effects of cadmium on health -- 6.3.8 Analysis of foodstuffs for cadmium -- 7 The packaging metals: aluminium and tin -- 7.1 Aluminium -- 7.1.1 Chemical and physical properties of aluminium -- 7.1.2 Production and uses -- 7.1.3 Aluminium in food and beverages -- 7.1.3.1 Aluminium in fresh foods -- 7.1.3.2 Aluminium in processed foods -- 7.1.3.3 Aluminium in infant formulas -- 7.1.3.4 Aluminium in beverages -- 7.1.3.5 Aluminium in domestic water -- 7.1.3.6 Levels of aluminium in bottled waters and canned soft drinks -- 7.1.3.7 Aluminium in brewed tea -- 7.1.3.8 Aluminium in alcoholic beverages -- 7.1.4 Dietary intake of aluminium -- 7.1.4.1 High consumers of aluminium -- 7.1.4.2 Adventitious contributions of aluminium to the diet -- 7.1.5 Aluminium absorption -- 7.1.5.1 Metabolic consequences of high aluminium absorption -- 7.1.6 Analysis of foodstuffs for aluminium -- 7.2 Tin -- 7.2.1 Chemical and physical properties of tin -- 7.2.2 Production and uses of tin -- 7.2.3 Tin in food and beverages -- 7.2.3.1 Organotin compounds in food -- 7.2.4 Dietary intakes of tin -- 7.2.5 Absorption and metabolism of tin -- 7.2.6 Analysis of foodstuffs for tin -- 8 Transition metals: chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper and molybdenum -- 8.1 Chromium -- 8.1.1 Chemical and physical properties of chromium -- 8.1.2 Production and uses of chromium -- 8.1.3 Chromium in food and beverages -- 8.1.3.1 Adventitious chromium in foods -- 8.1.3.2 Dietary intakes of chromium -- 8.1.3.3 Recommended intakes of chromium -- 8.1.4 Absorption and metabolism of chromium -- 8.1.5 Chromium toxicity -- 8.1.6 Analysis of foodstuffs for chromium -- 8.2 Manganese -- 8.2.1 Chemical and physical properties of manganese -- 8.2.2 Production and uses of manganese.

8.2.3 Manganese in food and beverages -- 8.2.4 Dietary intake of manganese -- 8.2.4.1 Dietary requirements for manganese -- 8.2.5 Absorption and metabolism of manganese -- 8.2.6 Manganese toxicity -- 8.2.7 Analysis of foodstuffs for manganese -- 8.3 Iron -- 8.3.1 Chemical and physical properties of iron -- 8.3.2 Production and uses of iron -- 8.3.3 Iron in food and beverages -- 8.3.3.1 Iron in canned foods -- 8.3.3.2 Iron fortification of food -- 8.3.4 Dietary intake of iron -- 8.3.5 Iron absorption and metabolism -- 8.3.5.1 Functions of iron -- 8.3.5.2 Iron deficiency anaemia -- 8.3.6 Recommended intakes of iron -- 8.3.7 High intakes of iron -- 8.3.8 Analysis of foodstuffs for iron -- 8.4 Cobalt -- 8.4.1 Chemical and physical properties of cobalt -- 8.4.2 Production and uses of cobalt -- 8.4.3 Cobalt in food and beverages -- 8.4.4 Recommended intakes of cobalt -- 8.4.5 Absorption and metabolism of cobalt -- 8.4.6 Toxicity of cobalt -- 8.4.7 Analysis of foodstuffs for cobalt -- 8.5 Nickel -- 8.5.1 Chemical and physical properties of nickel -- 8.5.2 Production and uses of nickel -- 8.5.3 Nickel in food and beverages -- 8.5.4 Dietary intakes and requirements -- 8.5.5 Absorption and metabolism of nickel -- 8.5.6 Nickel toxicity -- 8.5.7 Analysis of foodstuffs for nickel -- 8.6 Copper -- 8.6.1 Chemical and physical properties of copper -- 8.6.2 Production and uses of copper -- 8.6.3 Copper in food and beverages -- 8.6.3.1 Copper in drinking water -- 8.6.3.2 Adventitious copper in food -- 8.6.4 Dietary intakes of copper -- 8.6.4.1 Recommended and safe intakes of copper -- 8.6.5 Absorption and metabolism of copper -- 8.6.5.1 Copper enzymes -- 8.6.5.2 Depression of copper absorption by zinc and other metals -- 8.6.6 Copper toxicity -- 8.6.7 Analysis of foodstuffs for copper -- 8.7 Molybdenum -- 8.7.1 Chemical and physical properties of molybdenum.

8.7.2 Production and uses of molybdenum.