Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide: Food and Pharmaceutical Applications -- Contents -- Preface -- Contributors -- 1 Introduction to Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide Technology -- 2 Thermodynamics of Solutions of CO2 with Effects of Pressure and Temperature -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Thermodynamics of liquid-vapour phase equilibria -- 2.2.1 Calculation of γ -- 2.2.2 Calculation of Φ -- 2.2.3 Calculation of the liquid-vapour phase equilibria -- 2.3 Application to CO2-H2O system model -- 2.3.1 Non-electrolyte models -- 2.3.2 Electrolyte models -- 2.4 Thermodynamics of solid-vapour equilibria -- 2.5 List of symbols -- 3 Experimental Measurement of Carbon Dioxide Solubility -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Solubility of carbon dioxide in water -- 3.2.1 Definition and brief review of early studies -- 3.2.2 Physical properties associated with the phase diagram of carbon dioxide -- 3.2.3 Effect of pressure and temperature on carbon dioxide solubility in water -- 3.3 Experimental methods for carbon dioxide solubility measurement -- 3.3.1 Analytical methods -- 3.3.2 Synthetic methods -- 3.4 Review of experimental results -- 3.5 Conclusions -- 4 Effects of Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide on Vegetative Cells -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Gases used for inactivating microorganisms -- 4.3 Effect of DPCD on vegetative microorganisms -- 4.3.1 Effect of DPCD on bacterial cells -- 4.3.2 Effect of DPCD on vegetative forms of fungi, pests and viruses -- 4.4 Factors affecting the sensitivity of microorganisms to DPCD -- 4.4.1 Effect of CO2 physical states -- 4.4.2 Effect of temperature and pressure -- 4.4.3 Effect of CO2 concentration -- 4.4.4 Effect of agitation -- 4.4.5 Effect of water content -- 4.4.6 Effect of pressurization and depressurization rates -- 4.4.7 Effect of pressure cycling -- 4.4.8 Effect of microbial type -- 4.4.9 Effect of initial microbial number.

4.4.10 Effect of physical and chemical properties of suspension -- 4.4.11 Effect of culture conditions and growth phases -- 4.4.12 Injured microorganisms -- 4.4.13 Effect of combination processes -- 4.4.14 Effect of type of system -- 4.4.15 Treatment time and inactivation kinetics -- 4.5 Mechanisms of microbial inactivation by DPCD -- 4.5.1 Solubilization of CO2 under pressure into suspension -- 4.5.2 Cell membrane modification -- 4.5.3 Cytoplasmic leakage -- 4.5.4 Intracellular pH decrease -- 4.5.5 Key enzyme inactivation -- 4.5.6 Inhibitory effect of molecular CO2 and HCO3- on metabolism -- 4.5.7 Intracellular precipitation and electrolyte imbalance -- 4.5.8 Extraction of vital cellular constituents -- 4.5.9 Physical cell rupture -- 4.6 Characterization of CO2 states and survival curves -- 4.7 Quantifying inactivation -- 4.8 Conclusions -- 5 Effects of Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide on Bacterial and Fungal Spores -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Inactivation of bacterial spores by DPCD -- 5.2.1 Effect of temperature -- 5.2.2 Effect of pressure -- 5.2.3 Effect of pH and aw of the treatment medium -- 5.2.4 Susceptibility of different bacterial spores -- 5.2.5 Effects of combination treatments -- 5.2.6 Mechanisms of bacterial spore inactivation -- 5.3 Inactivation of fungal spores by DPCD -- 5.4 Conclusion -- 6 Effects of DPCD on Enzymes -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Effects of gas bubbling -- 6.3 Alteration of the protein structure -- 6.4 Studies with multiple enzymes -- 6.5 Effects on specific enzymes -- 6.5.1 Alpha-amylase -- 6.5.2 Acid protease -- 6.5.3 Alkaline protease -- 6.5.4 Gluco-amylase -- 6.5.5 Lipase -- 6.5.6 Pectinesterase (PE) -- 6.5.7 Pectin methyl esterase (PME) -- 6.5.8 Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) -- 6.5.9 Tyrosinase -- 6.5.10 Lipoxygenase -- 6.5.11 Peroxidase -- 6.5.12 Alkaline phosphatase -- 6.5.13 Myrosinase -- 6.5.14 Hydrolases.

6.6 Conclusions and suggestions -- 7 The Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation by Carbon Dioxide under High Pressure -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The survival curve -- 7.2.1 Primary models -- 7.2.2 Secondary models - the effect of pressure alone -- 7.2.3 The temperature effect and that of other auxiliary factors -- 7.2.4 Dynamic treatments -- 7.3 Application of the models to published experimental data -- 7.3.1 Primary model derivation -- 7.4 Concluding remarks -- 7.5 List of symbols -- 8 Applications of DPCD to Juices and Other Beverages -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Juices processed with DPCD -- 8.2.1 Orange juice -- 8.2.2 Apple juice -- 8.2.3 Mandarin juice -- 8.2.4 Grapefruit juice -- 8.2.5 Watermelon juice -- 8.2.6 Coconut water -- 8.2.7 Guava puree -- 8.2.8 Grape juice -- 8.2.9 Pear -- 8.2.10 Carrot -- 8.2.11 Carrot juice -- 8.2.12 Peach -- 8.2.13 Kiwi -- 8.2.14 Melon -- 8.3 Other beverages processed with DPCD -- 8.3.1 Beer -- 8.3.2 Kava kava -- 8.3.3 Jamaica beverage -- 8.4 Conclusions -- 9 Use of Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide in Dairy Processing -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Carbon dioxide in milk -- 9.3 Enzymes and microorganisms in milk -- 9.4 Application of carbon dioxide to milk -- 9.4.1 Carbon dioxide addition to raw milk -- 9.4.2 Carbon dioxide addition during thermal pasteurization of milk -- 9.4.3 Effect of carbon dioxide addition on sensory properties of milk -- 9.4.4 Dense phase carbon dioxide process -- 9.5 Application of carbon dioxide for enzyme inactivation -- 9.6 Application of carbon dioxide to cottage cheese production -- 9.7 Application of carbon dioxide to yogurt and fermented products -- 9.8 Application of carbon dioxide to casein production -- 9.8.1 Casein properties -- 9.8.2 Casein production by high-pressure carbon dioxide -- 9.8.3 Comparison between continuous and batch systems for casein production by carbon dioxide.

9.8.4 Economic comparison between high-pressure carbon dioxide and a conventional process for casein production -- 9.9 Conclusions -- 10 Particle Engineering by Dense Gas Technologies Applied to Pharmaceuticals -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Dense gas as a solvent -- 10.2.1 Rapid expansion of supercritical solutions -- 10.2.2 Rapid expansion of supercritical solutions with a solid solvent -- 10.2.3 Rapid expansion of supercritical solutions with a nonsolvent -- 10.2.4 Particles from gas-saturated solutions -- 10.3 Dense gases as antisolvents -- 10.3.1 Gas antisolvent process -- 10.3.2 Aerosol solvent extraction system -- 10.3.3 Solution-enhanced dispersion by supercritical fluids -- 10.3.4 Atomized rapid injection for solvent extraction -- 10.4 SCFs as co-solvents -- 10.4.1 Depressurisation of an expanded liquid organic solvent -- 10.5 Dense gases as aerosolisation aids (spray-drying assistance) -- 10.5.1 Carbon dioxide-assisted nebulisation with a bubble dryer -- 10.5.2 Supercritical fluid assisted atomisation -- 10.6 Conclusion -- 11 Industrial Applications Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide for Food -- 11.1 Overview -- 11.2 Past development -- 11.3 Mechanism of microbial inactivation -- 11.3.1 Effect of other gases on microbial inactivation -- 11.4 scCO2 commercialization activities -- 11.5 Porocrit process -- 11.5.1 Impact on juice quality -- 11.5.2 Impact on nutrient values -- 11.5.3 Impact on microbial inactivation -- 11.5.4 Impact on microbial inactivation for solid foods -- 11.5.5 scCO2 processing efficiencies -- 11.6 Conclusions -- 12 Outlook and Unresolved Issues -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Unresolved issues -- 12.2.1 Inactivation mechanism of DPCD -- 12.2.2 Food quality and storage -- 12.2.3 Target foods -- 12.2.4 Process equipment and intellectual property -- 12.2.5 Fouling, cleaning, and disinfecting.

12.2.6 Occurrence of DPCD-resistant mutants -- 12.2.7 Industrial implementation and process economics -- 12.3 Future outlook and conclusions -- 12.4 Acknowledgements -- References -- Index.