State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Contents - Summary -- Contents -- Acknowledgements -- Table of International Instruments -- Table of Domestic Legislation -- Table of International Cases -- Table of Domestic Cases -- Abbreviations -- Preface -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 The Relevance of State-Religion Identification under International Human Rights Law -- 1.2 Objectives, Methodology & Outline -- Part I State-Religion Identification: A Comparative Legal Analysis -- 2 Religious States, State Religions & State Churches -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Religious States -- 2.2.1 Christian States -- (i) History: the Imperium Christianum -- (ii) Present -- 2.2.2 Islamic States -- (i) History of Pre-modern Islamic Imperialism -- (ii) Present -- 2.2.3 A Jewish State? -- 2.2.4 The Secularization of the Last Hindu State -- (i) History -- (ii) Present -- 2.2.5 (Mono)theist States -- 2.3 State Religions & State Churches -- 2.3.1 State Religions -- (i) Christian State Religions -- Roman Catholicism -- Lutheranism -- Eastern Orthodoxy -- (ii) Islam as State Religion -- (iii) Buddhism as State Religion -- History -- Present -- (iv) Historical State Religions -- 2.3.2 State Churches and National Churches -- (i) Roman Catholic Church -- (ii) Evangelical Lutheran Church -- (iii) Armenian Apostolic Holy Church -- 2.3.3 Regional Establishment -- (i) The Anglican Church of England and the Presbyterian Church of Scotland -- (ii) Regional Endorsement: the Swiss Approach -- (iii) Other Examples -- 2.4 Implications -- 2.4.1 Constitutional Religion-Law Nexus -- (i) No Law Contrary to Islam -- (ii) Religion as Sole or Principal Source for Legislation -- (iii) Religion as a Source for Legislation -- 2.4.2 Clustering Profane and Sacred Authority -- 2.4.3 Reserving Political Seats for Members of the State Religion.

2.4.4 Royal Protection of the State Religion -- 2.4.5 Religious Nature of the State as an Irrevocable Status -- (i) State Religion as an Irrevocable Status -- (ii) Exception: State Religion as Explicitly Changeable Status -- 2.5 Concluding Remarks -- 3 State Support & State Acknowledgement of Religion -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 State Support -- 3.2.1 State-Supported Buddhism -- 3.2.2 State-Supported Christianity (Unspecified) -- 3.2.3 State-Supported Roman Catholicism -- 3.2.4 State Support for the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus and Vakf -- 3.2.5 State-Supported Orthodox Church -- 3.2.6 State-Supported Islam -- 3.3 State Acknowledgement -- 3.3.1 Historical Acknowledgment -- (i) Acknowledgement of Christianity (Unspecified) -- (ii) Acknowledgement of Eastern Orthodoxy -- (iii) Catholic Church in Timor-Leste and Paraguay -- 3.3.2 Acknowledgement of a Predominant Religion -- 3.3.3 Acknowledgement of Religious Phenomena -- (i) Constitutional Acknowledgement of God -- (ii) Constitutional Acknowledgement of Other Religious Notions -- Specific Characteristics of God -- Creationism -- Omnipotence -- Omniscience -- Omnipresence -- Supremacy -- Immortality -- Interventionism -- Trinitarianism -- Positive Characteristics -- Monotheism -- Religious Founders -- Founding Sources -- Notions of Sanctity -- Other Metaphysical Notions -- (iii) State Symbolism & Religion -- State Mottos -- Flags -- 3.4 Concluding Remarks -- 4 Accommodation of Religions & Non-Identification -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Accommodation of Religion: Unspecified Support vs. Support for Various Religions -- 4.2.1 Direct Political Representation of Religions -- 4.2.2 Advisory Role of Religions -- 4.2.3 Financial State Support for Religions -- 4.2.4 Other Types of Cooperation between the State and Various Religions -- 4.3 Non-Identification -- 4.4 Concluding Remarks.

5 Secularism & Separation of State and Religion -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Secular States -- 5.2.1 Declared Secular States -- 5.2.2 State Neutrality -- 5.3 Non-establishment Clause -- 5.3.1 American Non-establishmentarianism -- 5.3.2 Other Non-establishment Clauses -- 5.4 Separation of State and Religion -- 5.4.1 Separation of State and Church -- 5.4.2 Separation of State and Religion -- 5.4.3 Regional Separation of State and Religion -- 5.5 Implications -- 5.5.1 Political Implications of Secularism/Separationism -- 5.5.2 Structural Implications of Separation -- (i) Separation as Mutual Independence -- (ii) Separation as Governmental Independence -- (iii) Separation as Church or Religious Autonomy -- 5.5.3 Secularity/Separation as an Irrevocable Characteristic -- 5.5.4 Contradictory State Practice -- (i) Secularism & Religious Affirmations -- (ii) Separationism & Religious Affirmations -- 5.6 Concluding Remarks -- 6 Secular State Ideologies & Negative Identification -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Secular State Ideologies -- 6.3 Negative Identification -- 6.4 Concluding Remarks -- Part II State-Religion Identification: A Human Rights Analysis -- 7 Preliminary Legal Questions Concerning Establishment of Religion and State Atheism -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Establishment of Religion under International Human Rights Law -- 7.2.1 Travaux Préparatoires on Establishment of Religion -- 7.2.2 Establishment, Religious Freedom and the Legal Doctrine -- 7.2.3 Establishment of Religion & Non-Discrimination -- 7.3 Official Anti-Religionism as Ipso Facto Human Rights Violation -- 7.4 Conclusion -- 8 Religious Laws & the State -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 State Interference with Enforcement of Religious Laws: Substantive Concerns -- 8.2.1 Religious Laws & Gender Inequality -- (i) Shari'a & Gender Inequality -- Inequality in Marriage Options and During Marriage.

Inequality at the Dissolution of Marriage -- Inequality in Inheritance -- Inequality of the Value of Testimony -- Modesty Rules -- (ii) Halakhah & Gender Inequality -- (iii) Cultural Traditions & Violations of Women's Rights -- 8.2.2 Apostasy -- 8.2.3 Inferior Status of Religious Minorities -- 8.3 Systemic Human Rights Concerns Regarding State Intervention in the Observance of Religious Laws -- 8.3.1 Freedom from Religion -- 8.3.2 Equality before the Law & Equal Protection of the Law -- 8.3.3 Transparency, Legal Certainty and Checks & Balances -- 8.4 Religious Reservations to Norms of International Human Rights Law -- 8.5 Conclusion -- 9 State Entanglement with Religion & the Equal Religious Rights of Others, Freedom of Expression, Freedom of Association and Equal Employment Opportunities -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Establishment of Religion & the Equal Religious Rights of Members of Other Religions -- 9.2.1 Establishment of Religion & Limited Domestic Conceptions of the Right to Freedom of Religion and Belief -- (i) Freedom of Religion or Belief Not Constitutionally Protected -- (ii) Freedom of Religion or Belief as a Non-Universal Right -- (iii) 'Freedom of Worship' -- (iv) Freedom to Manifest Only: No 'Freedom to Have or Adopt' -- (v) Failure to Recognize the Right to Conscientious Objections -- Right to Conscientious Objection Not Guaranteed -- Conscientious Objection Applied in a Discriminatory Manner -- Discriminatory Nature or Length of the Alternative Service -- Conscientious Objection only Prior to Joining the Army -- (vi) 'Religion' as Ground for Limitation -- (vii) Proselytism Bans -- (viii) Legal Measures Encroaching on the Privacy of Religious Beliefs -- (ix) Illegitimate Secular Limits on Freedom on Religion or Belief -- 9.2.2 Establishment of Religion & Unequal Treatment of Other Religions.

(i) Discrimination on the Basis of Religion Not Prohibited -- (ii) Different Treatment of Different Religions -- Financial Benefits -- 'Religion Tax' -- Historical Prerogatives of Predominant Religions -- Religious Holidays & Days of Rest -- 9.3 Religion & Freedom of Expression -- 9.3.1 Domestic Counter-Blasphemy and Counter-Defamation Measures -- 9.3.2 The Interplay between Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Religion under International Human Rights law -- 9.3.3 The Emerging Counter-Defamation Discourse -- 9.4 Religion & Freedom of Association -- 9.4.1 Numerical Requirements -- 9.4.2 Presence Requirements -- 9.4.3 Other Illegitimate Registration Requirements -- 9.5 Religion & Employment -- 9.5.1 Distinctive Treatment on Grounds of Religion or Belief -- (i) Genuine Occupational Requirements -- (ii) Religious Ethos Exception -- 9.5.2 Discrimination on Other Grounds for Religious Reasons -- 9.6 Conclusion -- 10 Religion & Education -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Access to Appropriate Education -- 10.2.1 Prohibition of Compulsory Religious Upbringing -- 10.2.2 Prohibition of Compulsory Religious Education -- 10.2.3 Access to Non-Denominational Education -- 10.2.4 Further Access Issues: State Schools & Secular Dress Codes -- 10.2.5 The Problem with Opt-Out Provisions -- 10.2.6 No State Duty to Provide Religious Education -- 10.2.7 Neutral and Objective Public School Education About Religions -- 10.3 Teachers, Education & Human Rights Law -- 10.3.1 Employing Teachers -- (i) Public Schools: No Religious Discrimination -- (ii) Denominational Schools: Genuine Occupational Requirement Exemptions -- 10.3.2 Position and Role of Teachers -- (i) Public School Teachers & Religion -- (ii) Public Schools & Religious Dress -- (iii) Denominational School Teachers -- 10.4 Conclusion: An Emerging State Duty to Provide Neutral Education about Religions?.

11 Religion & Politics.