Minding the Helm -- Copyright -- Acknowledgments -- Preface -- BACKGROUND -- NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STUDY -- SCOPE OF STUDY -- REPORT ORGANIZATION -- Contents -- Executive Summary -- INTRODUCTION -- Overview of Marine Navigation and Piloting -- Synopsis of Major Findings and Recommendations -- RISK IN THE MARINE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT -- Major Findings -- Summary Recommendations -- HUMAN SYSTEMS -- Major Findings -- Summary Recommendations -- MARINE PILOTAGE -- Major Findings -- Pilotage Practice -- Pilotage Standards -- Jurisdiction and Licensing -- Pilotage of Coastwise Tugs and Tows -- Summary Recommendations -- Standards -- Jurisdiction and Licensing -- Coastwise Tugs and Tows -- WATERWAYS MANAGEMENT -- Major Findings -- Port-State Control -- Marine Traffic Regulation -- Summary Recommendations -- Port-State Control -- Marine Traffic Regulation -- NAVIGATION AND PILOTING TECHNOLOGY -- Major Findings -- Introduction of New Technology and Performance Criteria -- Hydrographic and Topographic Data -- Positioning Systems -- Integrated Bridge and Control Systems -- Traditional Aids to Navigation -- Summary Recommendations -- Introduction of New Technology -- Institutional Considerations -- Hydrographic and Topographic Data -- Positioning Systems -- Traditional Aids to Navigation -- MARITIME RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT -- Major Findings -- Summary Recommendations -- 1 The Marine Navigation and Piloting System -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- PILOTAGE -- VESSEL AND WATERWAY SYSTEMS -- Port and Waterway Design and Operation -- Waterways Management -- Marine Traffic Regulation -- Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) -- Traffic Control Issues -- Port-State Versus Flag-State Control -- Economic Versus Social Regulation -- HUMAN SYSTEMS -- Shiphandling Skills -- Masters -- Deck Officers -- Bridge Team Support -- TECHNOLOGY.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES AND STRUCTURES FOR DECISION-MAKING -- RISK AND CHANGE IN THE MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING SYSTEM -- Assessing Risk -- Changes in the Marine Navigation and Piloting System -- Marine Industry Issues -- Public Safety Issues -- The Marine Accident Record -- THE PILOTAGE CONTROVERSY -- 2 Piloting Practices -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- PILOTAGE OVERVIEW -- Pilots -- Types of Pilots -- Numbers of Pilots -- Pilot Services -- Pilot Grounds -- Governance -- Master-Pilot Relationships -- Pilot Responsibilities -- Pilot Compensation -- Professional Development -- Development of Federal Pilots -- Development of Marine Pilots and Docking Masters -- Pilots and Modern Technology -- PILOTAGE SYSTEMS AND MODELS -- The Role of Pilotage Models -- Central Features of a Complete Pilotage System -- Changing Pilotage Systems -- 3 Pilotage Administration -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- REGULATING PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONALS -- FEDERAL REGULATION OF PILOTAGE -- Federal Pilotage Requirements -- Waters and Vessels Subject to Federal Pilotage -- Federal Licensing Requirements -- Federal Pilot Examinations -- Official Discipline Under the Federal Pilotage System -- Coast Guard Resources for Overseeing Pilotage -- Assessment of Federal Pilotage -- STATE REGULATION OF PILOTAGE -- State Pilotage Requirements -- State-Level Resources for Administering Pilotage -- State Pilotage Boards -- State Pilot Associations -- Training and Professional Development -- Pilot Discipline and Operational Oversight Under State Systems -- Assessment of State Pilotage Systems -- OTHER FORMS OF PILOTAGE -- Docking, Undocking, and Mooring Services -- Docking and Mooring Masters -- Training and Practice -- Accountability -- Assessment of Docking and Mooring Services for Vessels in Foreign Trade -- Pilotage in Federal Canals -- Pilotage in the Towing Industry.

Pilotage for Coastwise Towing Industry Vessels -- Pilotage of Inland Towing Vessels -- Public Criticism of Pilotage in the Towing Industry -- Pilotage of Military Sealift Command Ships -- Pilotage of Inland Passenger Vessels -- Pilotage for Dredges -- European and British Columbia Pilotage Systems -- Pilotage Systems -- Pilot Qualifications -- Pilot Training Using Shiphandling Simulation -- IMPROVING PILOTAGE PRACTICES AND ADMINISTRATION -- Alternatives for Improving Pilotage Systems -- Establish National Guidelines or Standards -- Establish Code of Professional Ethics -- Establish Universal Entry-level Qualifications -- Require Emergency Shiphandling Training -- Require Continuing Professional Development -- Require Pilot Recertification -- Verification of Professional Competence -- Establish Vessel Type and Size Criteria for Federal Pilotage -- Relieve Federal Pilots of Non-Pilotage Duties -- Closing Institutional Gaps -- Jurisdictional Gaps in Ship Pilotage, Docking, and Mooring -- Docking, Undocking, and Vessel Transport Services -- Redefining the Pilot's Role -- Master-Pilot Working Relationship -- Marine Pilot Responsibilities Relative to Substandard Ships -- Improving Pilotage in the Towing Industry -- Consolidating Pilotage into a Single Program for Each Port and Waterway System -- Consolidating Ship Pilotage Under a Single Authority -- Implementing National Standards and a Port-Level Pilotage System -- 4 Risk, the Operating Environment, and Safety -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- RISK -- Decision Analysis and Risk -- Decision Analysis -- Risk Analysis -- Relationship Between Probabilistic Risk and Perceived Risk -- RISK IN MARINE TRANSPORTATION -- Considerations in Reducing the Probability of Accidents -- Traditional Risk Management by Mariners -- Assessing Risk in Marine Transportation -- Consequences of Risk.

THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT FROM A RISK ASSESSMENT PERSPECTIVE -- A Tale of Six Rivers -- Vessel Behavior -- Forces Acting on a Ship -- Controlled Hydrodynamic Interactions -- Transit Considerations -- ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED BY QUANTITATIVE RISK MANAGEMENT -- Data Limitations -- Causal Factors in Marine Accidents -- Communications -- Navigation Technology -- Shore- and Waterway-based Navigation Support Services -- Data on Pilotage Risk -- Controversy Over Pilot Safety Performance -- IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT, AND COMMUNICATION -- Establish a Near-Miss Reporting System -- Establish an Exposure Data Base -- Establish a Comprehensive Risk Assessment Program -- 5 Marine Traffic Regulation -- SUMMARY -- REGULATION OF MARINE AND AIR TRAFFIC -- COMPARISON OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AND MARINE TRAFFIC REGULATION -- Overview -- Federal Marine and Aviation Infrastructures -- The National Airspace System -- Applying the Aviation Model to Marine Transportation -- Comparing the Aviation and Marine Operating Environments -- Additional Considerations in the Marine Setting -- MARINE ALTERNATIVES TO THE AVIATION MODEL -- Overview -- Existing VTS Systems -- VTS Programs and Objectives -- VTS Effectiveness -- VTS Operations -- The Marine Community's VTS Advisory Role -- IMPROVING WATERWAYS MANAGEMENT -- Port-by-Port Expansion of VTS -- Adapting the Aviation Model to Marine Transportation -- Shore-based Pilotage -- IMPLEMENTING MORE RIGOROUS MARINE TRAFFIC REGULATION -- 6 Navigation and Piloting Technology -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- SUMMARY OF IMPROVEMENT OPTIONS -- IMPROVING NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGIES -- Passage/Route Planning -- Choosing the Charting Medium -- Scaling Factors -- Accuracy of Nautical Charts -- Options for Immediate Action -- Options for Incremental Improvements -- Options for Long-term Development -- Position Fixing -- The Traditional Approach.

The High-Technology Approach -- Supporting Technologies and Resources -- Options for Immediate Action -- Options for Incremental Improvement -- Options for Long-Term Development -- Communications -- Options for Incremental Improvements -- Options for Long-Term Development -- Collision Avoidance and Surveillance -- Options for Incremental Improvements -- Options for Long-Term Development -- Steering and Track Keeping -- Options for Incremental Improvements -- Options for Long-Term Development -- Decision-Making Aids -- Options for Incremental Improvements -- Options for Long-Term Development -- Weather and Environment Monitoring -- Options for Incremental Improvements -- Options for Long-Term Development -- Docking Evolutions -- Options for Incremental Improvements -- Options for Long-Term Development -- TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE -- How Marine Navigation Technology is Adopted -- Marine Transportation Companies and Technological Change -- Mariners and Technological Change -- Pitfalls of the Application Process: Some Examples -- Multiple Equipment Configurations and Regulatory Restrictions -- Performance Objectives and Assessments -- Performance Objectives vs. Equipment Mandates -- Ensuring Pilot and Watch Officer Proficiency -- Technology-Induced Changes to Pilotage -- 7 A Human Systems Perspective on Marine Navigation and Piloting -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- AN ORGANIZATIONAL VIEW OF NAVIGATION AND PILOTING SYSTEMS -- The Operating Environment -- Internal Organizational Processes -- Shipboard Command and Control Organization -- Interrelationships on the Navigation Bridge -- Opportunities for Human Error in Traditional Practices -- APPLYING ORGANIZATIONAL SAFETY STRATEGIES TO MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING -- Recent Innovations in Navigation and Piloting -- Bridge Teams -- One-Person Bridge -- Pilot-CoPilot Model -- Marine Simulation -- Reducing Risk.

Command, Control, Communications, and Information.