Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright -- Contents -- General Introduction -- 1: Porous Construction Materials: Characterizations and Modeling -- 1.1. Definition of porous media -- 1.2. Different experimental tools for the characterization of porous materials -- 1.2.1. Measurements of porosity -- 1.2.1.1. Water porosimetry -- 1.2.1.2. Mercury intrusion porosimetry -- 1.2.2. Pore size distribution by sorption/desorption isotherms -- 1.2.3. Characterization of pore structure by NMR -- 1.2.4. Imaging techniques -- 1.2.4.1. From 2D to 3D images of the pore structure -- 1.2.4.2. Non-destructive 3D mapping by X-ray microtomography -- 1.3. Some constructed models for porous microstructures -- 1.3.1. Models based on pore size distribution -- 1.3.1.1. Statistical functions of pore size distribution -- 1.3.1.1.1. Case of monomodal porous structures -- 1.3.1.1.2. Case of polymodal porous structures -- 1.3.1.1.3. Determination of the pore-specific area -- 1.3.1.2. Models including geometrical parameters -- 1.3.2. Tridimensional-constructed microstructures -- 1.3.2.1. Vectorial approach -- 1.3.2.2. Voxel-based method -- 1.4. Some approaches for linking microstructure data to permeability -- 1.4.1. Permeability from MIP tests -- 1.4.1.1. Case of cylindrical pores -- 1.4.1.2. Case of more complex geometrical shape of pores -- 1.4.2. Permeability from constructed microstructures -- 1.4.2.1. Permeability determination from network of capillaries -- 1.4.2.2. Permeability determination by Stokes equation resolution -- 1.5. Bibliography -- 2: Moisture Transfers in Porous Construction Materials: Mechanisms and Applications -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Quantitative characteristics describing moisture in porous media -- 2.3. Phenomenon of transfer and moisture storage -- 2.3.1. Moisture diffusion -- 2.3.2. Capillarity -- 2.3.3. Infiltration.

2.3.4. Physical and chemical adsorption -- 2.4. Moisture transfer modeling: macroscopic approach -- 2.4.1. Driving potentials -- 2.4.2. Conservation equations -- 2.4.3. Moisture transfer -- 2.4.3.1. Vapor transfer -- 2.4.3.2. Liquid transfer -- 2.4.3.3. Gas transfer (dry air and vapor) -- 2.4.4. Heat transfer -- 2.4.5. Case study -- 2.4.5.1. Boundary conditions -- 2.4.5.2. Results and discussions -- 2.5. Transfer and storage properties -- 2.5.1. Vapor permeability -- 2.5.1.1. Experimental methods and references -- 2.5.1.2. Wood fibrous insulation measurements -- 2.5.2. Moisture diffusion coefficient -- 2.5.2.1. Moisture flow mechanisms -- 2.5.2.2. Method for assessment of moisture diffusion coefficient -- 2.5.2.3. Moisture diffusion coefficient of high performance concretes (HPCs) -- 2.5.2.3.1. Detailed method -- 2.5.2.3.2. Experimental setup -- 2.5.2.3.3. Materials -- 2.5.2.3.4. Results -- 2.5.3. Infiltration coefficient -- 2.5.3.1. Intrinsic and apparent infiltration coefficient -- 2.5.3.2. Tested materials -- 2.5.3.3. Experimental protocol -- 2.5.3.4. Case study results and discussion -- 2.5.4. Water vapor sorption-desorption isotherms -- 2.5.4.1. Methods for assessment of water vapor sorption-desorption isotherms -- 2.5.4.1.1. Principle -- 2.5.4.1.2. Desiccator method -- 2.5.4.1.3. DVS method -- 2.5.4.1.4. Comparison between desiccator and DVS methods -- 2.5.4.1.5. Results for construction materials -- 2.6. Effect of statistical variability of water vapor desorption used as input data -- 2.6.1. Variability of water vapor desorption -- 2.6.2. Effect of statistical variability -- 2.7. Conclusion -- 2.8. Bibliography -- 3: Homogenization Methods for Ionic Transfers in Saturated Heterogeneous Materials -- 3.1. General introduction -- 3.2. Different techniques of homogenization -- 3.2.1. Homogenization via volume averaging.

3.2.2. Periodic homogenization method -- 3.3. Periodic homogenization of ionic transfers accounting for electrical double layer -- 3.3.1. Dimensional analysis of equations -- 3.3.2. Reduction to a one scale problem -- 3.3.3. Homogenized microscopic diffusion-migration model with EDL -- 3.4. Particular case of ionic transfer without EDL -- 3.4.1. Dimensional analysis and scale problem -- 3.4.2. Homogenized macroscopic diffusion-migration model -- 3.5. Simulations and parametric study of the EDL effects -- 3.5.1. Implementation in COMSOL Multiphysics software and validation -- 3.5.2. Bidimensional elementary cells -- 3.5.2.1. Elementary cell with circular inclusion -- 3.5.2.2. More complex elementary cell -- 3.5.3. Three-dimensional elementary cells -- 3.5.3.1. Elementary cell with spherical inclusion -- 3.5.3.2. Elementary cell with a lower porosity -- 3.6. Calculations of effective chlorides diffusion coefficients using a multiscale homogenization procedure -- 3.7. Bibliography -- 4: Chloride Transport in Unsaturated Concrete -- 4.1. Introduction -- 4.2. Chloride diffusion in unsaturated case -- 4.2.1. Definition of the problem -- 4.2.2. Theoretical aspects -- 4.2.3. Ionic transport model -- 4.2.3.1. Assumptions -- 4.2.3.2. Description of the ionic diffusion mechanisms in pore scale -- 4.2.3.3. Description of the ionic diffusion mechanisms in macroscopic scale -- 4.2.3.3.1. Phase solid -- 4.2.3.3.2. Liquid phase ωls -- 4.2.4. Moisture transport model -- 4.3. Summary of the model -- 4.3.1. Output model -- 4.3.2. Constant parameters -- 4.4. Difficulties in determining some parameters of the model -- 4.5. Numerical method description -- 4.5.1. Finite volume method -- 4.5.1.1. Implicit scheme case -- 4.5.1.2. Semi-implicit scheme -- 4.5.1.3. Explicit scheme case -- 4.5.1.4. Stability and convergence of numerical schemes.

4.5.2. Numerical simulations of chloride profiles: parametrical study -- 4.5.2.1. Effect of ionic interactions -- 4.5.2.2. Effect of time exposure -- 4.5.2.3. Effect of initial saturation degree -- 4.5.2.4. Effect of the convection phenomena -- 4.5.2.5. Effect of binding isotherm -- 4.5.2.6. Effect of the adsorption isotherm and W/C ratio -- 4.5.2.7. Gas pressure effect -- 4.6. Conclusions -- 4.7. Bibliography -- 5: Construction Degradation by External Sulfate Attacks -- 5.1. Introduction -- 5.2. Mechanisms of degradation -- 5.2.1. Chemical reactions and crystallization pressure -- 5.2.2. Ingress of sulfate ions and scenario of sulfate attack -- 5.2.3. Influence of exposure conditions -- 5.2.3.1. Sulfate concentration -- 5.2.3.2. Counter ions and seawater -- 5.2.3.3. Temperature -- 5.2.3.4. Water saturation of concrete -- 5.3. Influence of concrete composition and standards requirements -- 5.3.1. Influence of binder composition -- 5.3.1.1. Cement composition -- 5.3.1.2. Fly ash -- 5.3.1.3. Slag -- 5.3.1.4. Limestone -- 5.3.1.5. Conclusion -- 5.3.2. Influence of concrete composition -- 5.3.2.1. Water/cement ratio and cement content -- 5.3.2.2. Aggregates -- 5.3.3. Standards requirements -- 5.4. Testing for sulfate resistance -- 5.4.1. Material and scale of the tests -- 5.4.2. Acceleration of the degradation process -- 5.4.2.1. pH control -- 5.4.2.2. Drying and wetting -- 5.4.3. Recommendations for testing -- 5.4.3.1. Study of degradation mechanism -- 5.4.3.2. Performance testing -- 5.5. Conclusion -- 5.6. Bibliography -- 6: Performance-Based Design of Structures and Methodology for Performance Reliability Evaluation -- 6.1. Introduction -- 6.2. Code treatment of structural reliability -- 6.2.1. Formulation of structural reliability analysis -- 6.2.2. Incorporation of reliability analysis into normative documents -- 6.2.3. Reliability targets.

6.2.4. Consistency with deterministic and semi-deterministic methods -- 6.3. Second moment transformation and simulation methods -- 6.3.1. Problem formulation -- 6.3.2. First-order reliability method -- 6.3.3. Second-order reliability method -- 6.3.4. Monte Carlo simulation for reliability analysis -- 6.3.5. Computational aspects and related software -- 6.3.6. Practical implementation aspects -- 6.4. Load and resistance modeling considering uncertainty -- 6.4.1. Uncertainty modeling -- 6.4.2. Need for resistance modeling -- 6.4.3. Measurement of resistance variables -- 6.4.4. Typical loading scenarios -- 6.5. Probabilistic assessment of limit-state violation -- 6.5.1. Reliability index and probability of failure -- 6.5.2. The concept of the design point -- 6.5.3. Sensitivity studies -- 6.5.4. Parameter importance measures -- 6.6. Component versus system reliability -- 6.6.1. Network requirements -- 6.6.2. Illustration of component and system reliability -- 6.6.3. Methods of estimating system reliability from component reliability -- 6.6.4. Practical implementation aspects -- 6.7. Time-dependent reliability -- 6.7.1. Concept of time dependence -- 6.7.2. Handling time dependency in reliability analysis -- 6.7.3. Time-dependent deterioration modeling -- 6.8. Conclusion -- 6.9. Bibliography -- 7: Coastal Protection Degradation Scenarios -- 7.1. Functions and types of coastal dikes -- 7.1.1. Main types of dikes -- 7.1.1.1. Historical fill -- 7.1.1.2. Homogeneous fill -- 7.1.1.3. Zoned fill -- 7.1.1.3.1. Original zoned fill -- 7.1.1.3.2. Zone fill following reinforcement or raising -- 7.1.1.4. Composite structure -- 7.1.1.4.1. Retaining wall (frequently on the water side) -- 7.1.1.4.2. Composite structure including rigid elements on the crest and in the core of the dike -- 7.1.2. Functional analysis of the protection system.

7.1.2.1. Definition of the system concerned by the functional analysis.