Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Executive Summary -- BACKGROUND -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Adequacy of Existing Regulations for Pathogens in Reclaimed Water and Sludge -- Adequacy of Existing Regulations for Harmful Chemicals in Reclaimed Water and Treated Municipal Sludge -- Reclaimed Water -- Treated Municipal Sludge -- Soil, Crop, and Ground Water Effects -- Reclaimed Water -- Treated Municipal Sludge -- Economic, Legal, and Institutional Issues -- Economic Considerations -- Public Perception and Liability -- Other Regulations and Institutional Controls -- CONCLUDING REMARKS -- 1 Introduction -- REFERENCE -- 2 Municipal Wastewater, Sewage Sludge, and Agriculture -- HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES -- Wastewater -- Sewage Sludge -- IRRIGATION WITH RECLAIMED WATER -- Crop Irrigation -- Deemand for Irrigation Water -- Wastewater Reclamation Motivated by Disposal Priorities -- Value of Reclaimed Wastewater -- USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE IN AGRICULTURE -- Potential Role of Sewage Sludge in Crop Production -- Ecological Linkages Between Urban and Agricultural Systems -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 3 Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Treatment -- QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE -- CONVENTIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES -- Preliminary Wastewater Treatment -- Primary Wastewater Treatment -- Secondary Wastewater Treatment -- Tertiary or Advanced Wastewater Treatment -- TREATMENT TO FACILITATE CROP IRRIGATION WITH RECLAIMED WATER -- SLUDGE TREATMENT PROCESSES -- Volume Reduction Processes -- Thickening -- Dewatering -- Conditioning -- Drying -- Stabilization Processes -- Biological Stabilization -- Chemical Stabilization -- Inactivation of Pathogenic Organisms and Viruses -- Other Sludge Treatment Processes -- Solidification/Immobilization.

Metal Stripping and Toxic Organic Destruction -- Combustion -- Ultimate Sludge Utilization or Disposal -- Integrated Sludge Management Schemes -- INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER PRETREATMENT -- Fate of Toxic Chemicals During Secondary Wastewater Treatment -- Heavy Metals -- Cyanide -- Toxic Organic Chemicals: Volatile and Semivolatile Organic Compounds, Pesticides and PCBs -- Pretreatment -- Pretreatment Goals -- Pretreatment Implementation -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 4 Soil, Crop, and Ground Water Effects -- SLUDGE AS A SOURCE OF PLANT NUTRIENTS -- Nitrogen -- Phosphorus -- Other Essential Plant Nutrients -- TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AS A SOURCE OF PLANT NUTRIENTS AND IRRIGATION WATER -- Plant Nutrients -- Irrigation Water Quality Concerns -- EFFECTS OF SLUDGE AND WASTEWATER ON SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES -- Organic Matter -- Water Retention Properties -- Structure and Aggregation -- Water Transmission Properties -- EFFECTS OF SLUDGE AND WASTEWATER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES -- Soluble Cations, Anions, and Molecules -- Trace Elements -- Accumulation of Potentially Harmful Inorganic Chemicals in Soils and Crops -- Accumulations of Potentially Harmful Organics in Soils and Crops -- EFFECTS OF SLUDGE ON SOIL MICROORGANISMS -- Microbial Biomass and Activity -- Biological Nitrogen Fixation -- EFFECTS ON GROUND WATER -- Pathogenic Microorganisms -- Heavy Metals -- Toxic Organic Compounds -- LANDSCAPE-LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 5 Public Health Concerns About Infectious Disease Agents -- INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION -- INFECTIOUS DISEASE RISK -- MONITORING INFECTIOUS DISEASE POTENTIAL -- PUBLIC HEALTH EXPERIENCE WITH THE USE OF RECLAIMED WATER AND SLUDGE -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 6 Public Health Concerns About Chemical Constituents in Treated Wastewater and Sludge -- FATE OF AND EXPOSURE TO ORGANIC CHEMICALS.

Behavior of Toxic Organics in the Soil -- Uptake of Toxic Organics by Plants -- Phthalate Esters -- Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), -- Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). -- Chlorinated Pesticides -- Disinfection Products -- Acid-Extractable Organic Compounds -- Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs) and Dibenzofurans (CDFs). -- Volatile Aromatic Compounds (VOC) -- Generalizations Regarding Uptake of Organics by Plants -- Uptake of Toxic Organics by Animals -- FATE OF AND EXPOSURE TO TRACE ELEMENTS IN SLUDGE -- Uptake of Trace Elements by Animals -- NONSPECIFIC HEALTH EFFECTS OF SLUDGE AND WASTEWATER -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 7 Regulations Governing Agricultural Use of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge -- REGULATORY BACKGROUND -- Agricultural Irrigation with Wastewater -- Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge -- FEDERAL STANDARDS FOR THE CONTROL OF PATHOGENS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE -- APPROACHES TO TOXIC CHEMICAL REGULATION IN SLUDGE AND WASTEWATER LAND APPLICATION -- Preventing Toxic Chemical Pollutant Accumulation in Soils -- Allowing Pollutant Accumulation in the Soil -- DEVELOPMENT OF U.S. CHEMICAL POLLUTANT STANDARDS FOR AGRICULTURAL USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE -- General Approach to Risk Assessment -- Hazard Identification -- Dose-Response Assessment -- Exposure Evaluation -- Risk Characterization -- EPA's Risk Assessment Approach -- Hazard Identification -- Exposure Assessment -- Risk Characterization -- EVALUATION OF FEDERAL STANDARDS FOR CHEMICAL POLLUTANTS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE -- Justification for Exempting Organic Pollutants From Regulation Should be Confirmed -- APLRs May Cause Maximum Permissible Loading Limits to be Exceeded -- Food Safety is not Likely to be Affected by the Regulations -- REGULATIONS AND GUIDANCE FOR AGRICULTURAL USE OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER -- Evolution of Regulations Governing Irrigation with Treated Municipal Wastewater.

General Description of the State Regulations -- Adequacy of Current Regulations for Reclaimed Water -- SUMMARY -- Pathogen Regulations for Sludge -- Toxic Chemicals Regulations for Sludge -- Regulations for Effluent Irrigation -- REFERENCES -- 8 Economic, Legal, and Institutional Issues -- ECONOMIC INCENTIVES FOR LAND APPLICATION OF TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE -- POTW Economic Perspectives -- Farm Economics of Treated Wastewater and Sludge Use -- Food Processor Perspectives -- MANAGING RESIDUAL RISKS -- Residual Risks -- Public Concerns to be Addressed -- Risk Management: Private Sector -- Common Law Liability -- Market Forces -- Voluntary Self-Regulation -- OTHER, RELATED GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS -- Toxic Waste Segregation, Waste Collection, and Treatment -- Treated Effluent and Sludge Discharge Management Options -- Surface and Ground Water Protection -- Public Health Protection for Harvested Crops -- Analysis for Regulatory Gaps and Overlap -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- Appendix -- COMMITTEE MEMBER BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION.