COASTAL SENSITIVITY TO SEA LEVEL RISE - FOCUSING ON THE MID-ATLANTIC REGION -- COASTAL SENSITIVITY TO SEA LEVEL RISE - FOCUSING ON THE MID-ATLANTIC REGION -- CONTENTS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- PREFACE -- SCOPE AND APPROACH OF THIS PRODUCT -- FUTURE SEA-LEVEL SCENARIOS ADDRESSED IN THIS PRODUCT -- PRODUCT ORGANIZATION -- EXECUTIVE SUMMARY -- ES.1. WHY IS SEA LEVEL RISING? HOW MUCH WILL IT RISE? -- ES.2. WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF SEA-LEVEL RISE? -- ES.2.1. Sea-Level Rise and the Physical Environment -- ES.2.2. Societal Impacts and Implications -- ES.3. HOW CAN PEOPLE PREPARE FOR SEA-LEVEL RISE? -- ES.3.1. Options for Adapting to Sea-level Rise -- ES.3.2. Adapting to Sea-level Rise -- ES.4. HOW CAN SCIENCE IMPROVE UNDERSTANDING AND PREPAREDNESS FOR FUTURE SEA-LEVEL RISE? -- ES.4.1. Enhance Understanding -- ES.4.2. Enhance Decision Support -- PART I OVERVIEW. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT -- Chapter 1 SEA-LEVEL RISE AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE COAST -- Key Points -- 1.1. Introduction -- 1.1.1. Climate Change Basis for this Product -- 1.2. Why Is Global Sea Level Rising? -- 1.3. Relative Sea-Level Rise around the United States -- 1.4. Impacts of Sea-Level Rise for the United States -- 1.4.1. Coastal Vulnerability for the United States -- 1.4.2. Climate Change, Sea-Level Rise and Storms -- 1.4.3. Shoreline Change and Coastal Erosion -- 1.4.4. Managing the Coastal Zone as Sea Level Rises -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 2 COASTAL ELEVATIONS -- Key Findings -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Elevation Data -- 2.2.1. Topographic Maps, Digital Elevation Models, and Accuracy Standards -- 2.2.2. Lidar Elevation Data -- 2.2.3. Tides, Sea Level, and Reference Datums -- 2.2.4. Topographic/Bathymetric/Water Level Data Integration -- 2.3. Vulnerabilty Maps and Assessments -- 2.3.1. Large-Area Studies (Global and United States) -- 2.3.2. Mid-Atlantic Region, States, and Localities.

2.3.3. Other Reports -- 2.3.4. Limitations of Previous Studies -- 2.4. Future Vulnerability Assessments -- 2.5. Summary, Conclusions, and Future Directions -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 3 OCEAN COASTS -- Key Findings -- 3.1. Introduction -- 3.2. Assessing the Potential Impact of Sea-Level Rise on the Ocean Coasts of the Mid-Atlantic -- 3.3. Geological Character of the Mid-Atlantic Coast -- 3.4. Important Factors for Mid-Atlantic Shoreline Change -- 3.4.1. Geologic Framework -- 3.4.2. Physical Processes -- 3.4.3. Sediment Supply -- 3.4.4 Human Impacts -- 3.5. Coastal Landforms of the Mid-Atlantic -- 3.5.1. Spits -- 3.5.2. Headlands -- 3.5.3. Wave-Dominated Barrier Islands -- 3.5.4. Mixed-Energy Barrier Islands -- 3.6. Potential Responses to Future Sea-Level Rise -- 3.6.1. Bluff and Upland Erosion -- 3.6.2. Overwash, Inlet Processes, and Barrier Island Morphologic Changes -- 3.6.3. Threshold Behavior -- 3.7. Potential Changes to the Mid-Atlantic Ocean Coast Due to Sea-Level Rise -- 3.7.1. Spits -- 3.7.2. Headlands -- 3.7.3. Wave-Dominated Barrier Islands -- 3.7.4. Mixed-Energy Barrier Islands -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 4 COASTAL WETLAND SUSTAINABILITY -- Key Findings -- 4.1. Introduction -- 4.2. Wetland Settings of the Mid-Atlantic Region -- 4.3. Vertical Development and Elevation Change -- 4.3.1. Wetland Vertical Development -- 4.3.2 Influence of Climate Change on Wetland Vertical Development -- 4.4. Horizontal Migration -- 4.5. Vulnerability of Wetlands to Twentieth Century Sea-Level Rise -- 4.5.1. Sudden Marsh Dieback -- 4.6. Predicting Future Wetland Sustainability -- 4.6.1. Case Study: Mid-Atlantic Regional Assessment, New York to Virginia -- 4.6.1.1. Panel Assessment Methods -- 4.6.1.2. Panel Findings -- 4.6.2. Case Study: Albemarle-Pamlico Sound Wetlands and Sea-Level Rise -- 4.6.2.1. Distribution of Wetland Types.

4.6.2.2. Future Sea-Level Rise Scenarios -- 4.7. Data Needs -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 5 VULNERABLE SPECIES: THE EFFECTS OF SEA-LEVEL RISE ON COASTAL HABITATS -- Key Findings -- 5.1. Introduction -- 5.2. Tidal Marshes -- 5.3. Freshwater Forested Wetlands -- 5.4. Sea-Level Fens -- 5.5. Submerged Aquatic Vegetation -- 5.6. Tidal Flats -- 5.7. Estuarine Beaches -- 5.8. Cliffs -- 5.9. Summary of Impacts to Wetland-Dependent Species -- REFERENCES -- End Notes -- PART II OVERVIEW. SOCIETAL IMPACTS AND IMPLICATIONS -- Chapter 6 SHORE PROTECTION AND RETREAT -- Key Findings -- 6.1. Techniques for Shore Protection and Retreat -- 6.1.1. Shore Protection -- 6.1.1.1 Shoreline Armoring -- Keeping the shoreline in a fixed position -- Protecting against Flooding or Permanent Inundation -- 6.1.1.2. Elevating Land Surfaces -- 6.1.1.3. Hybrid Approaches to Shore Protection -- 6.1.2. Retreat -- 6.1.3. Combinations of Shore Protection and Retreat -- 6.2. What Factors Influence the Decision Whether to Protect or Reteat? -- 6.2.1. Site-Specific Factors -- 6.2.2. Regional Scale Factors -- 6.2.3. Mutual Reinforcement between Coastal Development and Shore Protection -- 6.3. What Are the Environmental Consequences of Retreat and Shore Protection? -- 6.4. What Are the Societal Consequences of Shore Protection and Retreat As Sea Level Rises? -- 6.4.1. Short-Term Consequences -- 6.4.2. Long-Term Consequences -- 6.5. How Sustainable Are Shore Protection and Retreat? -- 6.5.1. Is "Business as Usual" Shore Protection Sustainable? -- 6.5.2. Sustainable Shore Protection May Require Regional Coordination -- 6.5.3. Either Shore Protection or a Failure to Plan can Limit the Flexibility of Future Generations -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 7 POPULATION, LAND USE, AND INFRASTRUCTURE -- Key Findings -- 7.1. Introduction -- 7.2. Population Study Assessment.

7.3. Mid-Atlantic Population Analysis -- 7.3.1. Example Population Analysis Results -- 7.4. Land Use -- 7.5. Transportation Infrastructure -- 7.5.1. General Considerations -- 7.5.2. Recent U.S. Department of Transportation Studies -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 8 PUBLIC ACCESS -- Key Findings -- 8.1. Introduction -- 8.2. Existing Public Access and the Public Trust Doctrine -- 8.3. Impact of Shore Erosion on Public Access -- 8.4. Impact of Responses to Sea-Level Rise on Public Access -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 9 MANAGEMENT ISSUES -- Key Findings -- 9.1. Introduction -- 9.2. Physical Characteristics -- 9.2.1. Floodplain -- 9.3. Potential Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Floodplains -- 9.4. Potential Effects of Sea-Level Rise on the Impacts of Coastal Storms -- 9.4.1. Historical Comparison at Tide Stations -- 9.4.2. Typical 100-Year Storm Surge Elevations Relative to Mean Higher High Water within the Mid-Atlantic Region -- 9.5. Floodplain Mapping and Sea-Level Rise -- 9.6. Studies of Future Coastal Conditions and Floodplain Mapping -- 9.6.1. FEMA Coastal Studies -- 9.6.2. Mapping Potential Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Floodplains -- 9.7. How Coastal Resource Managers Cope With Sea-Level Rise and Issues They Face -- 9.7.1. Studies by the Association of State Floodplain Managers -- 9.7.2 The Response through Floodproofing -- 9.7.3. Coastal Zone Management Act -- 9.7.4. The Coastal Zone Management Act and Sea-Level Rise Issues -- 9.7.5 The Coastal Zone Enhancement Program -- 9.7.6. Coastal States Strategies -- 9.7.6.1. Maryland's Strategy -- REFERENCES -- End Notes -- PART III OVERVIEW. PREPARING FOR SEA-LEVEL RISE -- Chapter 10 IMPLICATIONS FOR DECISIONS -- Key Findings -- 10.1. Introduction -- 10.2. Decisions Where Preparing for Sea-Level Rise Is Worthwhile -- 10.2.1. Decisions that Address Large Near-Term Impacts.

10.2.2. Decisions Where Preparing Now Costs Little -- 10.2.3. Options That Reallocate or Clarify Risks from Sea-Level Rise -- 10.3. Protecting Coastal Wetlands -- 10.4. Shore Protection -- 10.5. Long-Lived Structures: Should We Plan Now or Later? -- 10.6. Decisions by Coastal Property Owners on Elevating Homes -- 10.7. Floodplain Management -- 10.7.1. Floodplain Regulations -- 10.7.2. Floodplain Mapping -- 10.7.3. Federal Flood Insurance Rates -- 10.7.3.1. Actuarial (Post-FIRM) Policies -- 10.7.3.2. Pre-FIRM and other Subsidized Policies -- 10.7.4. Post-Disaster Hazard Mitigation -- 10.8. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 11 ONGOING ADAPTATION -- Key Findings -- 11.1. Introduction -- 11.2. Adaptation for Environmental Purposes -- 11.2.1. Environmental Regulators -- 11.2.2. Environmental Land Managers -- Federal Land Managers -- The Nature Conservancy -- 11.3. Other Adaptation Options being Considered by Federal, State, and Local Governments -- 11.3.1. Federal Government -- 11.3.2.State Government -- 11.3.3.Local Government -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 12 INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS -- Key Findings -- 12.1. Introduction -- 12.2. Some Specific Institutional Barriers and Biases -- 12.2.1. Shore Protection versus Retreat -- 12.2.2. Shoreline Armoring versus Living Shorelines -- 12.2.3. Coastal Development -- 12.3. Interdependence: a Barrier or a Support Network? -- 12.3.1. Three Fundamental Pathways: Armor, Elevate, or Retreat -- 12.3.2. Decisions That Cannot Be Made Until the Pathway Is Chosen -- 12.3.3. Opportunities for Deciding on the Pathway -- REFERENCES -- End Notes -- PART IV OVERVIEW. NATIONAL IMPLICATIONS AND A SCIENCE STRATEGY FOR THE WAY FORWARD -- Chapter 13 IMPLICATIONS OF SEA-LEVEL RISE TO THE NATION -- Key Findings -- 13.1. Introduction -- 13.2. Types of Coasts -- 13.2.1. Cliff and Bluff Shorelines.

13.2.2. Sandy Shores, Pocket Beaches, Barrier Beaches, Spits, and Dunes.