Democratic Accountability and the Use of Force in International Law.

Cover -- Half-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Contents -- Figures -- Tables -- Notes on contributors -- Preface -- Disclaimer -- Abbreviations -- Part I Introduction -- 1 Broaching the issues -- Tenets of democracy: participation in decision-making and accountability -- Using military forces under the auspices of international institutions: from proposals to practices -- The League of Nations -- The United Nations -- The North Atlantic Treaty -- Uses of military forces under international auspices -- Issues of democratic accountability -- International authorization to use military forces -- National authorization to use military forces -- Democratic civilian control of military personnel and operations -- Civilian responsibility to the military for the safety of deployed personnel -- Responsibility to comply with norms governing the conduct of military and other international personnel in the field -- The structure of the study -- The framework for the analyses -- The nine countries -- The outline of the study -- Future prospects -- Part II The domestic and international context -- 2 The interface of national constitutional systems with international law and institutions on using military forces… -- Trends in constitutional control over the use of force in the seventeenth to twentieth centuries -- Collective security and collective self-defense: issues for the United States -- Developments in other countries -- Illustrative conflicts: constitutional issues in multinational military operations -- Constitutional considerations for particular countries -- Conclusion -- 3 Domestic political factors and decisions to use military forces -- Political culture -- Political relationships -- Leadership -- Contending political groups -- Budgetary commitments -- The military -- Societal influences -- Mass media -- Public opinion.

Societal groups -- The impact of domestic political considerations by type of peace operation -- International pressures -- Domestic and international politics: changes over time -- 4 Collective security, peacekeeping, and ad hoc multilateralism -- Putting collective security into practice -- The League of Nations: an institutional legacy -- An evolving security role for the United Nations -- Filling security gaps during the Cold War -- Post-Cold War transitions -- Challenges to international peace operations at the end of the twentieth century -- Somalia -- Rwanda -- Bosnia -- Regional security arrangements and ad hoc multilateralism -- NATO and Kosovo -- Regional arrangements -- Conclusion: the United Nations and ad hoc multilateralism -- 5 The legal responsibility of military personnel -- Introduction -- The status of military personnel in UN peace support operations -- UN law: mandate and terms of reference -- Status-of-forces agreements and participation agreements -- The applicability of international humanitarian law to UN peace support operations -- The status of military personnel in NATO peace support operations -- Dutchbat in Srebrenica -- Implementing the mandate -- Witnessing war crimes -- Summary and conclusions -- Part III Traditional contributors to international military operations -- 6 Canada: committed contributor of ideas and forces, but with growing doubts and problems -- Introduction -- Constitutional and legal situation -- Debates about peacekeeping and the use of force -- Traditional peacekeeping -- Monitoring and observation -- Force to ensure compliance with international mandates -- Peacekeeping with state-building -- Enforcement -- Canada's continued commitment to international operations -- Conclusion -- 7 Norway: political consensus and the problem of accountability -- Norwegian involvement abroad.

Monitoring and observation -- Traditional peacekeeping -- Peacekeeping plus state-building -- Peacekeeping to ensure compliance with international mandates -- Enforcement -- Nordic cooperation in UN operations -- The uses of military forces and the politics of legality -- Legal constraints on the use of the military -- The UN, NATO, and the question of command -- The UN, NATO, and the question of mandates -- The two constellations of Norwegian foreign policy -- First constellation: sovereignty, security, and the UN -- Second constellation: human rights and humanitarian intervention -- Conclusion -- 8 India: democratic, poor, internationalist -- Why India matters in this study -- India's democratic credentials -- India as a postcolonial developing country -- India's peacekeeping credentials -- International authorization -- Examples -- International authorization and democratic accountability -- The Sierra Leone crisis of May 2000 -- National authorization -- Agencies in the decision-making process -- The decision-making process -- Civil-military relations -- The Indian armed forces -- Democratic accountability domestically -- Formal mechanisms -- Informal controls -- The Sri Lanka crisis of May 2000 -- Conclusion -- Part IV Newcomers to international military operations -- 9 Japan: moderate commitment within legal strictures -- Introduction -- The debate within a historical context -- The Constitution and utilization of military forces -- Article 9 and the current official interpretation -- Different forms of military operations and Japanese participation -- Authorization within the Japanese legal framework -- International authorization and statutory requirements -- National authorization to use the SDF: parliamentary accountability -- Specific issues of accountability in Japan -- Political accountability: bureaucrats vs. politicians.

Public accountability: the deliberative role of the Diet -- Civilian accountability: role of the military establishment -- Soldiers' responsibility: compliance with humanitarian norms -- Conclusions -- 10 Germany: ensuring political legitimacy for the use of military forces by requiring constitutional accountability -- Historical introduction -- Political background and constitutional framework for the 1994 judgment -- Political background -- Constitutional framework -- The political and military situation since 1998 -- International authorization to deploy military forces -- Authorization by the UN and NATO -- Conformity of authorization with international law -- National authorization to deploy military forces -- The constitutional and political system -- Deriving the parliamentary authorization requirement -- The specifics of the approval requirement -- Authorizations in practice -- Civilian control -- Historical aspects of civilian control of the military -- Safeguards for the civilian control of the military -- Civilian control of the military acting under international auspices -- Civilian responsibility -- Military responsibility -- The question of democratic accountability: general conclusions -- Part V Permanent members of the UN Security Council -- 11 Russian Federation: the pendulum of powers and accountability -- Introduction -- Historical overview -- Current regulation -- The Constitution -- The Constitutional Court -- The statute -- Official doctrine -- Practice of authorization of foreign deployments -- Concluding remarks -- 12 France: Security Council legitimacy and executive primacy -- Introduction -- Using force internationally: from hesitancy to full participation -- An initial ambiguity -- A growing involvement -- A flexible doctrine -- The unique international legitimacy of the Security Council.

French posture in the Security Council -- The unique features of the Security Council -- The domestic dimension: an unfettered executive -- A key international role for the president -- French decision-making in time of crisis -- A limited role for the parliament -- Promoting the European Union as an actor in international military operations -- Conclusion -- 13 The United Kingdom: increasing commitment requires greater parliamentary involvement -- The UK Constitution and military action -- The War Cabinet -- The United Kingdom and UN peace operations -- The United Kingdom and NATO -- The role of parliament -- Peacekeeping -- Enforcement actions to combat aggression -- Situations where force is used to ensure compliance with international mandates -- Concluding remarks -- 14 The United States: democracy, hegemony, and accountability -- The law governing use of force by the United States -- The Constitution -- The War Powers Resolution -- The political dimension -- Party politics -- Public opinion -- Use of military forces under international institutions -- Military force structure, doctrine, and capability -- Requisitioning of forces -- Changing attitudes towards Article 43 agreements -- NATO -- Conclusion -- Part VI Conclusion -- 15 Toward a mixed system of democratic accountability -- The record: steps toward establishing democratic accountability -- International authorization to use military forces -- National authorization to use military forces -- Civilian control, civilian responsibility, military responsibility -- An evolving mixed system -- Constructing a new order for maintaining democratic accountability while using military forces under international auspices -- References -- Index.