Cover -- Half-tilte -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- 1The effect of variation among floral traits on the flower constancy of pollinators -- Darwin's hypothesis -- Search image hypothesis -- Flower-handling skills or search image for floral features? -- Trait variability hypothesis -- Why are pollinators constant? -- Selective foraging behavior in pollinators: implications for floral diversity -- Intraspecific variation -- Interspecific variation -- Floral diversity in communities -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 2 Behavioral and neural mechanisms of learning and memory as determinants of flower constancy -- Localization on a rough scale: the structure of navigational memories -- Localization on a small scale: choice sequences and memory dynamics -- Memory phases -- Associative induction and early short-term memory -- Late short-term memory (lSTM) -- Mid-term memory (MTM) -- Long-term memory (LTM) -- Sequential choice behavior during foraging: memory dynamics at work -- The framework of a mechanistic model of flower choice -- References -- 3 Subjective evaluation and choice behavior by nectar-and pollen-collecting bees -- The decision-making process -- Subjective evaluations by honeybees, and genotypic variation - the dance -- Nectar and costs -- Pollen -- Subjective evaluations by honeybees and genotypic variation - proboscis extension response -- Choice behavior: expected rewards -- Some models and concerns about currency -- Choice - subjective evaluation of objective information -- Nectar concentration -- Pollen -- Choice behavior: variation in nectar concentration -- Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 4 Honeybee vision and floral displays: from detection to close-up recognition -- Detection and recognition of colored targets -- The bee's color vision system.

The detection phase: the role of chromatic and achromatic cues and the minimum detectable angle -- Detection versus recognition: alternative use of achromatic and chromatic cues -- Bees discriminate among different amounts of green contrast -- The use of achromatic spatial cues contained in black-and-white stimuli -- Pattern disruption and its role in pattern-discrimination tasks -- Pattern recognition by means of a template -- The role of pattern orientation -- The role of symmetry -- Final remarks -- Experience-based flexibility of behavior and cognitive capacities -- Genetically fixed capacities -- References -- 5 Floral scent, olfaction, and scent-driven foraging behavior -- What is fragrance? A floral scent primer -- Chemical diversity and biosynthesis -- Floral scent variation: defining the phenotype -- Multidimensional odor space -- the natural distribution of floral scent -- How do pollinators detect and perceive fragrances? -- Odor signal detection and transduction -- Peripheral olfactory receptors -- Odor coding, processing, and perception -- How do flower visitors respond to fragrance? -- Diversity in behavioral responses -- Foraging strategies, pollen movement, and behavioral predictions -- Pollinator-mediated selection on variation in floral scent -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 6 Adaptation, constraint, and chance in the evolution of flower color and pollinator color vision -- Pollination syndromes and flower colors -- Flower constancy and flower similarity -- Pleiotropy, exaptation, constraint, and chance in the evolution of flower color -- Has bee color vision adapted to flower color? -- The evolution of flower-color preference in bumble bees -- Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 7 Foraging and spatial learning in hummingbirds -- Simple decision rules -- Use of visual cues -- Memory for locations of flowers.

Spatial patterns or point locations? -- Summary -- References -- 8 Bats as pollinators: foraging energetics and floral adaptations -- Glossophagine bat energetics -- Daily energy requirements -- The energy cost of flight -- Horizontal forward flight -- Flight speeds -- Hovering flight -- Hovering duration -- Minimum nectar energy densities -- The "syndrome" of chiropterophily: adaptations of glossophagine flowers to their visitors' sensory physiology -- The cutting of foraging costs: addressing the senses and cognition -- Olfaction -- Vision -- Echolocation and flower shape -- Spatial memory -- Securing the goods: repulsion of unwanted visitors -- Conclusion -- References -- 9 Vision and learning in some neglected pollinators: beetles, flies, moths, and butterflies -- Non-hymenopteran insects are important pollinators in a range of habitats -- Cues used to locate flowers -- Color vision and innate color preferences -- Learning ability -- Pollinator learning ability has implications for floral evolution -- Complex morphologies -- Floral color change -- Lifestyle traits of solitary insects may impact learning abilities and pollinator performance -- Solitary insects may confuse stimuli associated with different tasks -- Differing energetic requirements will lead to different flower-visitation patterns -- Multiple uses of flowers may affect innate preferences -- Open-ended questions -- What makes an insect a good pollinator? -- How broad-based or species-specific are sensory attributes and learning abilities in pollinators? -- How important were early pollinators in shaping flower form? -- Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 10 Pollinator individuality: when does it matter? -- Basic observations -- Small foraging areas -- Traplining behavior -- Variation in working speed -- Variation in foraging mode -- Learning-related individuality.

Effects of genotype -- Parasite-induced changes in forager behavior -- Effects of age -- Problems in neglecting interindividual variance: foraging strategies -- Modes of foraging -- Familiarity with individual plant characteristics -- Scent-marking at flowers -- Problems in neglecting interindividual variance: pollinator sensory physiology -- Recommendations -- References -- 11 Effects of predation risk on pollinators and plants -- Are there significant levels of predation on pollinators? -- Major predators of flower-visiting animals -- Attack and predation rates on pollinators -- Indirect effects of predation -- How might predation affect pollinator traits? -- Assessment of predation risk and avoidance learning -- How should pollinators respond to perceived predation? -- Direct response to predation risk -- General behavioral adaptations to predation -- The timing of activity -- Flower specialization and flower constancy -- How might predation influence plant characteristics through pollinator-plant interactions? -- Floral traits -- Flower shape and size -- Nectar availability -- Spur length -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 12 Pollinator preference, frequency dependence, and floral evolution -- Pollinator responses to frequency - definitions and importance -- Are pollinator foraging patterns frequency-dependent? The results of laboratory experiments -- Analyzing data to test for FDS -- Bumble bee behavior on single artificial flowers -- Why do bumble bees visit artificial flowers in a frequency-dependent way? -- Bumble bee behavior on artificial inflorescences -- Do pollinators forage in a frequency-dependent way under field conditions? -- From individual behavior to selection - frequency-dependence in plant populations -- Evidence for FDS in rewarding plant populations -- Evidence for FDS in unrewarding plant populations.

Frequency-dependent selection by pollinators - fact or fiction? -- Does pollinator behavior in the field differ from that observed in the laboratory? -- Do the predicted fitness relationships differ from those observed in the field? -- What can we predict about the evolutionary dynamics of floral polymorphisms? -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 13 Pollinator-mediated assortative mating: causes and consequences -- Evolutionary significance of assortative mating -- Pollinator behavior that results in assortative mating -- Consequences for plants -- Partitioning between pollinator taxa -- Partitioning within pollinator taxa -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 14 Behavioral responses of pollinators to variation in floral display size and their influences on the evolution of floral… -- Optimal number of flowers probed per plant in relation to floral display size -- Possible factors causing patch depression during foraging on a plant -- The effect of flower number -- Optimal visitation rate per plant in relation to floral display size -- Incorporating the ideal free distribution into the model -- Evolutionary implications -- Effects of plant density on the evolution of floral display -- Can plants manipulate pollinators to their own advantage? Some possibilities of plant traits that promote movements between… -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 15 The effects of floral design and display on pollinator economics and pollen dispersal -- Pollinator economics -- Flowers and pollen dispersal by individual pollinators -- Inflorescences -- Pollinator behavior on inflorescences -- Geitonogamy and outcross siring success -- Attraction -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 16 Pollinator behavior and plant speciation: looking beyond the "ethological isolation" paradigm -- The foraging behavior of pollinators.

Examples from pollination interactions.