Structure of Dairy Products -- Contents -- Preface to Technical Series -- Preface -- Contributors -- 1 Overview of Microscopical Approaches -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Light microscopy -- 1.2.1 Compound light microscope -- Dark field and phase contrast -- Polarised light and differential interference contrast -- Fluorescent microscopy -- Staining -- 1.2.2 Confocal scanning light microscopy(CSLM) -- 1.2.3 Specimen preparation -- 1.3 Electron microscopy -- 1.3.1 Scanning electron microscopy -- 1.3.2 Transmission electron microscopy -- Thin sectioning -- Replica techniques -- Dispersions -- 1.4 Other techniques -- 1.5 Conclusions -- Bibliography -- 2 Instrumental Techniques for Sample Preparation -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Light microscopy techniques -- 2.2.1 Wide-field light microscopy -- 2.2.2 Fluorescence light microscopy -- 2.2.3 Confocal scanning laser microscopy(CSLM) -- 2.2.4 Sectioned material for light microscopy -- 2.2.5 Cold-stage light microscopy -- 2.3 Scanning electron microscopy -- 2.3.1 Electron guns -- 2.3.2 Cathode comparison parameters -- 2.3.3 Low-temperature scanning electron microscopy -- 2.3.4 Environmental/variable pressure scanning electron microscopy -- 2.4 Transmission electron microscopy -- 2.4.1 Embedded material for transmission electron microscopy -- 2.4.2 Negative staining transmission electron microscopy -- 2.4.3 Low-temperature transmission electron microscopy -- Freeze-fracture replication -- Low-temperature preparation methods -- Freeze-substitution for transmission electron microscopy -- Cryo-transmission electron microscopy -- 2.4.4 Energy-filtering transmission electron microscopy techniques -- Global imaging -- Contrast enhancement -- Thick section imaging -- Frozen hydrated specimens -- Electron spectroscopic imaging -- 2.5 X-ray microanalysis -- 2.6 Rheology -- 2.7 Light scattering.

2.7.1 Laser light scattering -- 2.7.2 Dynamic light scattering -- 2.8 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy -- 2.9 Digital imaging and image analysis -- 2.9.1 Hardware -- 2.9.2 Software -- 2.9.3 Major steps in applying image analysis -- Image acquisition -- Calibration -- Image enhancement -- 2.10 Laboratory safety -- 2.10.1 Light microscopy -- 2.10.2 Scanning electron microscopy/transmission electron microscopy -- 2.10.3 Systems using lasers -- 2.11 Future techniques in dairy product structure -- 2.11.1 Scanning probe microscopy -- 2.11.2 Diffusing wave and ultrasonic spectroscopy -- 2.11.3 Microwave techniques in microscopy -- References -- 3 Microstructure of Milk Components -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Cow's milk composition -- 3.2.1 Milk fat globule -- Milk fat -- Milk fat globule membrane -- 3.2.2 Colloidal milk proteins -- Microstructure of casein micelles -- Molecular structure of casein micelles -- Interactions and stabilisation of casein micelles -- 3.2.3 Whey proteins -- 3.2.4 Lactose -- 3.3 Concluding remarks -- References -- 4 Microstructure of Dairy Fat Products -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Microstructure of cream and butter -- 4.2.1 Background -- 4.2.2 Cream -- 4.2.3 Whipped cream -- 4.2.4 Butter -- 4.3 Milk fat -- 4.3.1 Composition -- 4.3.2 Fractionation -- 4.4 Microstructure -- 4.4.1 Effect of minor components -- 4.4.2 Processing conditions -- Crystallisation temperature -- Cooling rate -- Agitation -- 4.4.3 Chemical composition -- Interesterification -- Blending anhydrous milk fat with vegetable oils -- Blending different anhydrous milk fat fractions -- Blending anhydrous milk fat with cocoa butter -- 4.4.4 Addition of emulsifiers to milk fat and its blends -- 4.5 Rheology -- 4.6 Fat crystal networks and microstructure -- 4.7 Milk fat in emulsions -- 4.7.1 Introduction -- 4.7.2 Emulsion stability -- Creaming -- Flocculation.

Coalescence -- Partial coalescence -- Ostwald ripening -- 4.8 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 5 Microstructure of Concentrated and Dried Milk Products -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Patterns of production -- 5.3 Milk as a raw material -- 5.4 Concentrated milk products -- 5.4.1 Evaporated milk -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.4.2 Sweetened condensed milk -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.4.3 Bulk concentrated milk -- 5.5 Dairy powders -- 5.5.1 Whole and skimmed milk powders -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.5.2 Retentate milk (whole and skimmed) powders -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.5.3 Buttermilk powder -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.5.4 Whey powder -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.5.5 Whey protein concentrates and whey protein isolates -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.5.6 Lactose -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.5.7 Caseinates -- Method of manufacture -- Structure -- 5.6 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Structure of Fermented Milks -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Background to manufacturing practice -- 6.3 Patterns of production and consumption -- 6.4 Lactic acid fermentations -- 6.4.1 Background -- 6.4.2 Liquid-type fermented milks -- Ayran and dough -- Buttermilk -- Yakult® -- 6.4.3 Gel-type fermented milks -- Factors affecting the structure formation in yoghurt -- Monitoring milk coagulation using confocal scanning laser microscopy -- Effect of capsular EPS on structure formation and origin of void spaces around starter cultures -- How is ropiness formed? -- Stabilising mechanism of EPS in yoghurt -- 6.5 Lactic acid-yeast fermentations -- 6.5.1 Ke. r -- Structure -- 6.5.2 Koumiss -- 6.5.3 Calpis® -- 6.6 Lactic acid-mould fermentations -- 6.6.1 Viili (viiliä) -- 6.7 Concentrated fermented milk products -- 6.7.1 Labneh -- 6.7.2 Skyr -- 6.7.3 Ymer.

6.7.4 Shrikhand -- 6.8 Frozen yoghurt and related products -- 6.9 Dried fermented milk products -- 6.10 Conclusions -- References -- 7 Microstructure of Natural Cheeses -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Manufacturing processes -- 7.2.1 High-pressure processing -- 7.2.2 Cheese manufactured from concentrated milk -- Ultrafiltered milk -- Evaporated milk -- 7.2.3 Freezing -- 7.3 Compositional parameters -- 7.3.1 Calcium and pH -- 7.3.2 Salt -- 7.3.3 Fat replacers -- 7.3.4 Milk from different mammalian species -- 7.4 Fat globule microstructure -- 7.4.1 Homogenisation -- 7.4.2 Recombined milk -- 7.4.3 Free oil formation -- 7.4.4 Meltability -- 7.5 Protein microstructure -- 7.5.1 Protein hydrolysis -- 7.5.2 Casein substructural units -- 7.6 Minerals -- 7.7 Mozzarella and other pasta filata cheeses -- 7.7.1 Microstructure of Mozzarella cheese -- 7.7.2 Protein microstructure -- 7.7.3 Compositional parameters -- Calcium and pH -- Salt -- Exopolysaccharides -- Fat replacers -- 7.7.4 Fat globule microstructure and meltability -- 7.7.5 Homogenisation -- 7.7.6 Recombined milk -- 7.7.7 Light scattering by cheese constituents -- 7.8 Cottage cheeses -- 7.9 Cream cheeses -- 7.10 Mould-ripened cheeses -- 7.10.1 Background -- 7.10.2 Camembert cheese -- 7.11 Conclusions -- References -- 8 Processed Cheese and Cheese Analogues -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Processed cheese technology -- 8.2.1 Gross composition and ingredients -- 8.2.2 Emulsifying salts -- 8.2.3 Manufacturing process -- 8.3 Rheology and structure of processed cheese -- 8.3.1 Background -- 8.3.2 Influence of blending ingredients -- 8.3.3 Effects of moisture and pH -- 8.3.4 Processing conditions -- 8.3.5 Changes during cooling and storage -- 8.4 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Microstructure of Frozen and Dairy-Based Confectionery Products -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Technological issues -- 9.2.1 Ice cream.

9.2.2 Chocolate and couvertures -- 9.2.3 Caramel and toffee -- 9.3 Microscopical issues -- 9.3.1 Ice cream -- 9.3.2 Toffee formulations -- 9.3.3 Chocolate and couvertures -- 9.4 Conclusions -- References -- 10 The Microscope in Troubleshooting -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Extraneous matter -- Metal checklist -- Wood checklist -- Glass checklist -- Rubber and plastics checklist -- Hair and fibres checklist -- Extraneous vegetable matter checklist -- Animals or insects -- 10.3 Quasi foreign materials associated with specific products -- 10.4 Processing plant defects -- 10.5 Technological issues -- 10.6 Conclusions -- References -- Bibliography -- Index.