Table of contents -- Abbreviations used in glosses -- Abbreviations used in text -- List of tables -- List of figures and graphs -- Acknowledgements -- 1 Introduction: History and theories of second language acquisition -- 1.1 Formal/generative approaches -- 1.1.1 Universal grammar and language acquisition -- 1.1.2 The parametric approach in second language acquisition -- 1.1.3 Interface approaches -- 1.2 Processing models -- 1.3 Discourse-pragmatic approaches -- 1.4 The variationist approach -- 1.5 Concluding remarks regarding theoretical approaches to L2 acquisition -- 1.6 Organization of the volume -- 2 Subjects in Spanish -- 2.1 Overview of subject forms in Spanish -- 2.2 Syntactic properties of Spanish subjects -- 2.2.1 The Null Subject Parameter -- 2.2.2 Interpretative constraints -- 2.2.3 Strong agreement and Spanish subjects -- 2.3 Discourse-pragmatic features and Spanish subject distribution -- 2.3.1 Focus, topic-continuity and topic-shift -- 2.3.2 Cohesion, saliency and cognition -- 2.4 Referent features and verbal semantics in Spanish subject distribution -- 2.4.1 Person, number and verb semantics -- 2.4.2 Specificity and animacy of referents -- 2.5 Regional variations of Spanish subjects -- 2.6 Chapter summary -- 3 Parametric studies in the acquisition of subject pronouns -- 3.1 Early research into the L2 acquisition of Spanish subject pronouns -- 3.2 Research on the acquisition of the Overt Pronoun Constraint (OPC) and Topic/Focus -- 3.3 Recent studies from a parametric approach: The OPC and naturalistic input -- 3.4 Conflicting evidence and common findings -- 4 The syntax-pragmatics interface in the acquisition of subject pronouns -- 4.1 Cross-linguistic influence in bilinguals and the Unidirectional Hypothesis -- 4.2 The Unaccusative Hypothesis and word order -- 4.3 The OPC (again).

4.4 Person and number -- 4.5 Contributions of findings of the syntax-pragmatic interface model -- 5 Processing studies and L2 subject pronoun acquisition in Spanish -- 5.1 Anaphoric resolution in pro-drop languages and the PAH -- 5.1.1 The PAH in Italian -- 5.1.2 The PAH in Spanish -- 5.1.3 The PAH in Spanish and Italian -- 5.1.4 Summary of effects of the PAH in pro-drop languages -- 5.2 Anaphoric resolution strategies in bilingual and L2 acquisition (pro-drop and non-pro-drop languages) -- 5.2.1 Strategies of anaphoric resolution in Italian L2 -- 5.2.2 Strategies of anaphoric resolution in Italian-English and Italian-Spanish bilinguals -- 5.3 Strategies of anaphoric resolution in Spanish heritage and L2 speakers -- 5.3.1 PAH biases in early (heritage) and late (L2) bilingual speakers -- 5.3.2 PAH biases and discourse structure in L2 learners -- 5.3.3 Conclusions of anaphoric resolution in bilingual and Spanish L2 speakers -- 5.4 Chapter summary -- 6 Discourse-pragmatics approaches in the acquisition of subject expression -- 6.1 Discourse structure and the acquisition of subject expression -- 6.2 Cohesion theory and the anaphoric hierarchy -- 6.2.1 Testing the anaphoric hierarchy and cohesion theory -- 6.2.2 Native speakers' use of subject forms according to the anaphoric hierarchy -- 6.2.3 L2 Learners' use of subject forms according to the anaphoric hierarchy -- 6.2.4 Predictions and universality of the anaphoric hierarchy -- 6.3 Emphasis, contrast and disambiguation -- 6.3.1 A longitudinal case study -- 6.3.2 Quantitative findings -- 6.3.3 Qualitative findings -- 6.3.4 Comparing the quantitative and qualitative findings -- 6.4 Pragmatic constraints of saliency, focus, and pragmatic weight -- 6.4.1 The rule of salient referent -- 6.4.2 The rule of switch focus of attention.

6.4.3 The rule of contrastive focus -- 6.4.4 The rule of pragmatic weight -- 6.4.5 The rule of epistemic parentheticals -- 6.4.6 Saliency, focus, and pragmatic weight in L2 learners' narrative structure -- 6.4.7 Results of analysis of pragmatic constraints -- 6.5 Cognitive status and the Givenness Hierarchy -- 6.5.1 Cognitive status of type identifiable and referential -- 6.5.2 Cognitive status of uniquely identifiable -- 6.5.3 Cognitive status of familiar -- 6.5.4 Cognitive status of activated -- 6.5.5 Cognitive status of in focus -- 6.5.6 A revised hierarchy for Spanish -- 6.5.7 The revised hierarchy and predicting subject use in L2 learners' narratives -- 6.5.8 Results of testing the revised hierarchy -- 6.6 Contributions of findings of the discourse-pragmatics approach -- 7 A variationist approach to L2 subject pronoun acquisition -- 7.1 Constraining factors in variationist studies -- 7.1.1 Linguistic variables -- 7.1.2 Discourse variables -- 7.2 Conditioning factors in L2 variationist studies -- 7.2.1 Linguistic variables in L2 studies -- 7.2.2 Discourse variables in L2 variation studies -- 7.3 Chapter summary -- 8 Summary of findings -- 8.1 The parametric model -- 8.1.1 The initial state -- 8.1.2 Automatic learning of a cluster of properties -- 8.1.3 Acquisition along a hierarchical/implicational path -- 8.1.4 The role of input in resetting parameters -- 8.1.5 Conclusions of findings of the parametric approach -- 8.2 The syntax-pragmatics interface model -- 8.2.1 Subject pronoun use constrained by discourse context -- 8.2.2 Unidirectional transfer -- 8.2.3 Word order constrained by lexical verb class and focus -- 8.2.4 Subsequent vs. simultaneous acquisition of syntax and discourse-pragmatic constraints -- 8.2.5 Why do discourse-pragmatic deficits linger? -- 8.2.6 Non-uniformity of L2 acquisition.

8.2.7 Conclusions of findings of the syntax-pragmatics interface model -- 8.3 Processing models -- 8.3.1 Strategies for resolving conflicting cues -- 8.3.2 Processing at the interface -- 8.3.3 Mediation between input and universal linguistic properties -- 8.3.4 Innate or L1 principles -- 8.3.5 Conclusions of findings of the processing model -- 8.4 Discourse-pragmatic approach -- 8.4.1 Discourse constraints/pragmatic rules -- 8.4.2 Impact of information structure in discourse -- 8.4.3 Predictions of implicational hierarchies -- 8.4.4 Universal cognitive abilities vs. language specific principles -- 8.4.5 Conclusions of findings of the discourse-pragmatics model -- 8.5 Variationist model -- 8.5.1 Linguistics contexts/factors and variability affecting subject expression in L2 -- 8.5.2 Discourse contexts/factors and variability affecting subject expression in L2 -- 8.5.3 Effects of verbal lexical semantics and variability of subject expression in L2 -- 8.6 Common findings and concluding remarks -- References -- Index.