Radioisotope Gauges for Industrial Process Measurements -- Contents -- Preface -- Symbols, Units and Abbreviations -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Ionising Radiation -- 1.2 Industrial Nucleonic Measurement Systems -- 1.3 Historical Perspective -- 1.4 The Objective of This Book -- 2 Radiation Sources -- 2.1 A Primer on Atomic and Nuclear Physics -- 2.1.1 Radioactive Decay -- 2.1.2 Modes of Decay -- 2.1.3 γ-Rays -- 2.1.4 Competitive Modes of Disintegration -- 2.1.5 Characteristic X-rays -- 2.1.6 Bremsstrahlung -- 2.1.7 Activity and Half-life -- 2.1.8 Radiation Energy -- 2.1.9 Summary of Radioisotope Emissions -- 2.2 Radioisotope Sources -- 2.2.1 Important Source Properties -- 2.2.2 Natural Sources -- 2.2.3 Tracers -- 2.2.4 Sealed Sources -- 2.3 Other Radiation Sources -- 2.3.1 X-ray Tubes -- 2.3.2 Nuclear Reactors -- 2.3.3 Accelerators -- 2.4 Sealed Radioisotope Sources Versus X-ray Tubes -- 3 Interaction of Ionising Radiation with Matter -- 3.1 Charged Particle Interactions -- 3.1.1 Linear Stopping Power -- 3.1.2 Range -- 3.1.3 Charged Particle Beam Intensity -- 3.2 Attenuation of Ionising Photons -- 3.2.1 The Intensity and the Inverse-Square Law -- 3.3 The Attenuation Coefficient of Ionising Photons -- 3.3.1 The Photoelectric Effect -- 3.3.2 Compton Scattering -- 3.3.3 Rayleigh Scattering -- 3.3.4 Pair Production -- 3.3.5 Attenuation Versus Absorption -- 3.3.6 Mean Free Path and Half-thickness -- 3.4 Attenuation Coefficients of Compounds and Mixtures -- 3.4.1 The Attenuation Coefficient of Homogeneous Mixtures -- 3.4.2 The Linear Attenuation Coefficients of Chemical Compounds -- 3.4.3 Attenuation in Inhomogeneous Materials -- 3.5 Broad Beam Attenuation -- 3.5.1 The Build-Up Factor -- 3.5.2 Build-Up Discrimination -- 3.5.3 The 'Effective' Attenuation Coefficient -- 3.6 Neutron Interactions -- 3.7 Effective Atomic Number -- 3.8 Secondary Electrons.

4 Radiation Detectors -- 4.1 Principle of Operation -- 4.2 Detector Response and Spectrum Interpretation -- 4.2.1 Window Transmission and Stopping Efficiency -- 4.2.2 The Noiseless Detection Spectrum -- 4.2.3 Detector Models -- 4.2.4 The Real Detection Spectrum -- 4.2.5 Signal Generation in Ionisation Sensing Detectors -- 4.2.6 Signal Generation in Scintillation Sensing Detectors -- 4.3 Purposes and Properties of Detector Systems -- 4.3.1 Energy, Temporal and Spatial Resolution -- 4.3.2 Important Properties -- 4.4 Gaseous Detectors -- 4.4.1 Detector Types -- 4.4.2 Wall Interactions -- 4.4.3 The Ionisation Chamber -- 4.4.4 The Proportional Counter -- 4.4.5 The Geiger-Muller Tube -- 4.5 Semiconductor Detectors -- 4.5.1 Electrical Classification of Solids -- 4.5.2 Impurities and Doping of Semiconductors -- 4.5.3 The pn Junction -- 4.5.4 The PIN Silicon Detector -- 4.5.5 Compound Semiconductor Detectors -- 4.5.6 Characteristics of Semiconductor Detectors -- 4.6 Scintillation Detectors -- 4.6.1 Plastic Scintillators -- 4.6.2 Common Scintillation Crystals and Their Properties -- 4.6.3 The Photomultiplier Tube -- 4.6.4 Electron Multiplier Types -- 4.6.5 Photodiodes for Scintillation Light Read-Out -- 4.6.6 Scintillation Detector Assembling -- 4.6.7 Temperature Effects -- 4.6.8 Ageing -- 4.7 Position Sensitive Detectors -- 4.8 Thermoelectric Coolers -- 4.9 Stopping Efficiency and Radiation Windows -- 4.9.1 Stopping Efficiency -- 4.9.2 Radiation Windows -- 4.10 Neutron Detectors -- 5 Radiation Measurement -- 5.1 Read-Out Electronics -- 5.1.1 Preamplifiers -- 5.1.2 Bias Supply -- 5.1.3 The Shaping Amplifier -- 5.1.4 Electronic Noise -- 5.1.5 Electronics Design -- 5.2 Data Processing Electronics and Methods -- 5.2.1 Intensity Measurement -- 5.2.2 Energy Measurement -- 5.2.3 Time Measurement -- 5.2.4 Position Measurement -- 5.3 Measurement Accuracy.

5.3.1 The Measuring Result -- 5.3.2 Estimation of Measurement Uncertainty -- 5.3.3 Error Propagation and Uncertainty Budget -- 5.3.4 Pulse Counting Statistics and Counting Errors -- 5.3.5 Probability of False Alarm -- 5.3.6 Energy Resolution -- 5.3.7 Measurement Reliability -- 5.4 Optimising Measurement Conditions -- 5.4.1 Background Radiation Sources -- 5.4.2 Shielding -- 5.4.3 Collimation -- 5.4.4 Neutron Collimation and Shielding -- 5.4.5 Alternative Transmission Measurement Geometries -- 5.4.6 Counting Threshold Positioning -- 5.4.7 Spectrum Stabilisation -- 5.4.8 Background Correction -- 5.4.9 Compton Anticoincidence Suppression -- 5.4.10 Source Decay Compensation -- 5.4.11 Dead Time Correction -- 5.4.12 Data Treatment of Rapidly Changing Signals -- 5.4.13 Dynamic Time Constants -- 5.4.14 Errors in Scaler Measurements -- 5.5 Measurement Modalities -- 5.5.1 Transmission -- 5.5.2 Scattering -- 5.5.3 Characteristic Emissions -- 5.5.4 Tracer Emission -- 5.5.5 NORM Emissions -- 5.5.6 Multiple Beam, Energy and Modality Systems -- 6 Safety, Standards and Calibration -- 6.1 Classification of Industrial Radioisotope Gauges -- 6.2 Radiological Protection -- 6.2.1 Radiological Protection Agencies -- 6.2.2 Quantities Used in Radiological Protection -- 6.2.3 Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation -- 6.2.4 Risk -- 6.2.5 Typical and Recommended Dose Levels -- 6.2.6 Dose Rate Estimation for γ-Ray Point Sources -- 6.2.7 Dose Rate Estimation for Neutrons -- 6.2.8 Examples on National Legislation -- 6.3 Radiation Monitors and Survey Meters -- 6.3.1 Contamination Monitors -- 6.3.2 Dose Rate Meters -- 6.3.3 Neutron Dose Rate Meters -- 6.3.4 Personal Dosimetry -- 6.3.5 Calibration of Dose Rate Monitors -- 6.4 Radiological Protection Methods -- 6.5 Transport of Radioactive Materials -- 6.5.1 Source Containers -- 6.5.2 Testing of Type A Containers.

6.5.3 Special Form -- 6.5.4 Transport Index -- 6.5.5 Labelling -- 6.5.6 Sealed Source Handling Procedures -- 6.6 Leakage Testing of Sealed Sources -- 6.7 Statutory Requirements -- 6.7.1 Licensing -- 6.7.2 Labelling of Installations Shielded Containers -- 6.7.3 Procedures or Local Rules -- 6.7.4 Accountancy and Training -- 6.7.5 Restricted Radiation Areas -- 6.8 Calibration and Traceability -- 6.8.1 Calibration -- 6.8.2 Traceability -- 6.8.3 Accreditation -- 6.8.4 Calibration of Radioisotope Gauges -- 7 Applications -- 7.1 Density Measurement -- 7.1.1 The γ-Ray Densitometer -- 7.1.2 Belt Weigher -- 7.1.3 Smoke Detector -- 7.2 Component Fraction Measurements -- 7.2.1 Two-Component Fraction Measurement -- 7.2.2 Multiple Beam Two-Component Metering -- 7.2.3 Three-Component Fraction Measurement -- 7.2.4 Dual Modality γ-Ray Densitometry -- 7.2.5 Component Fraction Measurements by Neutrons -- 7.2.6 Local Void Fraction Measurements -- 7.2.7 Dual-Energy Ash in Coal Transmission Measurement -- 7.2.8 Pair Production Ash in Coal Measurement -- 7.2.9 Coke Moisture Measurements -- 7.3 Level and Interface -- 7.3.1 Level Measurement and Control -- 7.3.2 Linearity in Level Gauges -- 7.3.3 Pressure Consideration in Level Systems -- 7.3.4 Interface Measurement -- 7.3.5 Installed Density Profile Gauges -- 7.4 Thickness Measurements -- 7.4.1 γ-Ray Transmission Thickness Gauges -- 7.4.2 Thickness Measurement Using γ-Ray Scatter -- 7.4.3 β-Particle Thickness Gauges -- 7.4.4 Monitoring of Wall Thickness and Defects -- 7.5 Flow Measurement Techniques -- 7.5.1 Density Cross-Correlation -- 7.5.2 Mass Flow Measurement -- 7.5.3 Multi-phase Flow Metering -- 7.5.4 Tracer Dilution Method -- 7.6 Elemental Analysis -- 7.7 Imaging -- 7.7.1 Transmission Radiography -- 7.7.2 Industrial Tomography -- 7.7.3 General Design of an Industrial Tomograph.

7.7.4 Industrial High-Speed Transmission Tomography -- 8 Engineering -- 8.1 Electronic Data -- 8.2 Rationale for Using Radioisotope Sources -- 8.2.1 Justification -- 8.2.2 ALARA -- 8.2.3 Constraint -- 8.3 Density Gauge Design -- 8.3.1 Background Information -- 8.3.2 Choice of Isotope -- 8.3.3 Source Activity Consideration -- 8.3.4 Accuracy -- 8.3.5 The Shielded Source Holder -- 8.3.6 The Detector -- 8.3.7 Radiological Considerations -- 8.3.8 Installation and Handover to the Operator -- 8.4 Dual Energy Density Gauge -- 8.4.1 The Dual Energy Shielded Source Holder -- 8.4.2 Dual Energy Detector -- 8.4.3 Dual Energy Design Considerations -- 8.4.4 Calibration -- 8.5 Monte Carlo Simulation -- Appendix A Data -- A.1 Constants -- A.2 Nuclide Index -- A.3 X-ray Fluorescence Data -- A.4 PGNNA Data -- Appendix B Formulae Derivation and Examples -- B.1 Photon Attenuation -- B.2 Compton Scattering -- B.2.1 Energy Sustained by the Scattered Photon -- B.2.2 The Differential Klein-Nishina Formula -- B.2.3 Compton Scattering and Absorption Cross Sections -- B.3 Photomultiplier Tube Lifetime Estimation -- B.4 Statistical Errors in Measurement -- B.4.1 The Linear Attenuation Coefficient -- B.4.2 The Density -- B.5 Read-out Electronics -- B.5.1 Experimental Noise Characterisation -- B.5.2 Electronics for Photodiode Read-out of BGO Crystal -- B.5.3 High Count-Rate Electronics for a CdZnTe Detector -- B.6 Half-width Calculation -- Appendix C References -- Index.