Sense and Avoid in UAS -- Contents -- Preface -- About the Editor -- About the Contributors -- Part I Introduction -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 UAV versus UAS -- 1.2 Historical Perspective on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles -- 1.3 UAV Classification -- 1.4 UAV Applications -- 1.5 UAS Market Overview -- 1.6 UAS Future Challenges -- 1.7 Fault Tolerance for UAS -- References -- 2 Performance Tradeoffs and the Development of Standards -- 2.1 Scope of Sense and Avoid -- 2.2 System Configurations -- 2.3 S&A Services and Sub-functions -- 2.4 Sensor Capabilities -- 2.4.1 Airborne Sensing -- 2.4.2 Ground-Based Sensing -- 2.4.3 Sensor Parameters -- 2.5 Tracking and Trajectory Prediction -- 2.6 Threat Declaration and Resolution Decisions -- 2.6.1 Collision Avoidance -- 2.6.2 Self-separation -- 2.6.3 Human Decision versus Algorithm -- 2.7 Sense and Avoid Timeline -- 2.8 Safety Assessment -- 2.9 Modeling and Simulation -- 2.10 Human Factors -- 2.11 Standards Process -- 2.11.1 Description -- 2.11.2 Operational and Functional Requirements -- 2.11.3 Architecture -- 2.11.4 Safety, Performance, and Interoperability Assessments -- 2.11.5 Performance Requirements -- 2.11.6 Validation -- 2.12 Conclusion -- References -- 3 Integration of SAA Capabilities into a UAS Distributed Architecture for Civil Applications -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 System Overview -- 3.2.1 Distributed System Architecture -- 3.3 USAL Concept and Structure -- 3.4 Flight and Mission Services -- 3.4.1 Air Segment -- 3.4.2 Ground Segment -- 3.5 Awareness Category at USAL Architecture -- 3.5.1 Preflight Operational Procedures: Flight Dispatcher -- 3.5.2 USAL SAA on Airfield Operations -- 3.5.3 Awareness Category during UAS Mission -- 3.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Part II Regulatory Issues and Human Factors -- 4 Regulations and Requirements -- 4.1 Background Information.

4.1.1 Flight Rules -- 4.1.2 Airspace Classes -- 4.1.3 Types of UAS and their Missions -- 4.1.4 Safety Levels -- 4.2 Existing Regulations and Standards -- 4.2.1 Current Certification Mechanisms for UAS -- 4.2.2 Standardization Bodies and Safety Agencies -- 4.3 Sense and Avoid Requirements -- 4.3.1 General Sense Requirements -- 4.3.2 General Avoidance Requirements -- 4.3.3 Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Airspace Class -- 4.3.4 Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Flight Altitude and Visibility Conditions -- 4.3.5 Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Type of Communications Relay -- 4.3.6 Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Automation Level of the UAS -- 4.4 Human Factors and Situational Awareness Considerations -- 4.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 5 Human Factors in UAV -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Teleoperation of UAVs -- 5.3 Control of Multiple Unmanned Vehicles -- 5.4 Task-Switching -- 5.5 Multimodal Interaction with Unmanned Vehicles -- 5.6 Adaptive Automation -- 5.7 Automation and Multitasking -- 5.8 Individual Differences -- 5.8.1 Attentional Control and Automation -- 5.8.2 Spatial Ability -- 5.8.3 Sense of Direction -- 5.8.4 Video Games Experience -- 5.9 Conclusions -- References -- Part III SAA Methodologies -- 6 Sense and Avoid Concepts: Vehicle-Based SAA Systems (Vehicle-to-Vehicle) -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Conflict Detection and Resolution Principles -- 6.2.1 Sensing -- 6.2.2 Trajectory Prediction -- 6.2.3 Conflict Detection -- 6.2.4 Conflict Resolution -- 6.2.5 Evasion Maneuvers -- 6.3 Categorization of Conflict Detection and Resolution Approaches -- 6.3.1 Taxonomy -- 6.3.2 Rule-Based Methods -- 6.3.3 Game Theory Methods -- 6.3.4 Field Methods -- 6.3.5 Geometric Methods -- 6.3.6 Numerical Optimization Approaches -- 6.3.7 Combined Methods -- 6.3.8 Multi-agent Methods.

6.3.9 Other Methods -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 7 UAS Conflict Detection and Resolution Using Differential Geometry Concepts -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Differential Geometry Kinematics -- 7.3 Conflict Detection -- 7.3.1 Collision Kinematics -- 7.3.2 Collision Detection -- 7.4 Conflict Resolution: Approach I -- 7.4.1 Collision Kinematics -- 7.4.2 Resolution Guidance -- 7.4.3 Analysis and Extension -- 7.5 Conflict Resolution: Approach II -- 7.5.1 Resolution Kinematics and Analysis -- 7.5.2 Resolution Guidance -- 7.6 CD&R Simulation -- 7.6.1 Simulation Results: Approach I -- 7.6.2 Simulation Results: Approach II -- 7.7 Conclusions -- References -- 8 Aircraft Separation Management Using Common Information Network SAA -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 CIN Sense and Avoid Requirements -- 8.3 Automated Separation Management on a CIN -- 8.3.1 Elements of Automated Aircraft Separation -- 8.3.2 Grid-Based Separation Automation -- 8.3.3 Genetic-Based Separation Automation -- 8.3.4 Emerging Systems-Based Separation Automation -- 8.4 Smart Skies Implementation -- 8.4.1 Smart Skies Background -- 8.4.2 Flight Test Assets -- 8.4.3 Communication Architecture -- 8.4.4 Messaging System -- 8.4.5 Automated Separation Implementation -- 8.4.6 Smart Skies Implementation Summary -- 8.5 Example SAA on a CIN - Flight Test Results -- 8.6 Summary and Future Developments -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Part IV SAA Applications -- 9 AgentFly: Scalable, High-Fidelity Framework for Simulation, Planning and Collision Avoidance of Multiple UAVs -- 9.1 Agent-Based Architecture -- 9.1.1 UAV Agents -- 9.1.2 Environment Simulation Agents -- 9.1.3 Visio Agents -- 9.2 Airplane Control Concept -- 9.3 Flight Trajectory Planner -- 9.4 Collision Avoidance -- 9.4.1 Multi-layer Collision Avoidance Architecture -- 9.4.2 Cooperative Collision Avoidance.

9.4.3 Non-cooperative Collision Avoidance -- 9.5 Team Coordination -- 9.6 Scalable Simulation -- 9.7 Deployment to Fixed-Wing UAV -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 10 See and Avoid Using Onboard Computer Vision -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Background -- 10.1.2 Outline of the SAA Problem -- 10.2 State-of-the-Art -- 10.3 Visual-EO Airborne Collision Detection -- 10.3.1 Image Capture -- 10.3.2 Camera Model -- 10.4 Image Stabilization -- 10.4.1 Image Jitter -- 10.4.2 Jitter Compensation Techniques -- 10.5 Detection and Tracking -- 10.5.1 Two-Stage Detection Approach -- 10.5.2 Target Tracking -- 10.6 Target Dynamics and Avoidance Control -- 10.6.1 Estimation of Target Bearing -- 10.6.2 Bearing-Based Avoidance Control -- 10.7 Hardware Technology and Platform Integration -- 10.7.1 Target/Intruder Platforms -- 10.7.2 Camera Platforms -- 10.7.3 Sensor Pod -- 10.7.4 Real-Time Image Processing -- 10.8 Flight Testing -- 10.8.1 Test Phase Results -- 10.9 Future Work -- 10.10 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 11 The Use of Low-Cost Mobile Radar Systems for Small UAS Sense and Avoid -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 The UAS Operating Environment -- 11.2.1 Why Use a UAS? -- 11.2.2 Airspace and Radio Carriage -- 11.2.3 See-and-Avoid -- 11.2.4 Midair Collisions -- 11.2.5 Summary -- 11.3 Sense and Avoid and Collision Avoidance -- 11.3.1 A Layered Approach to Avoiding Collisions -- 11.3.2 SAA Technologies -- 11.3.3 The UA Operating Volume -- 11.3.4 Situation Awareness -- 11.3.5 Summary -- 11.4 Case Study: The Smart Skies Project -- 11.4.1 Introduction -- 11.4.2 Smart Skies Architecture -- 11.4.3 The Mobile Aircraft Tracking System -- 11.4.4 The Airborne Systems Laboratory -- 11.4.5 The Flamingo UAS -- 11.4.6 Automated Dynamic Airspace Controller -- 11.4.7 Summary -- 11.5 Case Study: Flight Test Results -- 11.5.1 Radar Characterisation Experiments.

11.5.2 Sense and Avoid Experiments -- 11.5.3 Automated Sense and Avoid -- 11.5.4 Dynamic Sense and Avoid Experiments -- 11.5.5 Tracking a Variety of Aircraft -- 11.5.6 Weather Monitoring -- 11.5.7 The Future -- 11.6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Epilogue -- Index.