Integrated Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering -- Contents -- Preface -- List of Contributors -- 1. Protocols for Biomaterial Scaffold Fabrication -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Scaffolding Materials -- 1.2.1 Naturally Derived Materials -- 1.2.2 Scaffolds Based on Synthetic Polymers -- 1.3 Techniques for Biomaterial Scaffolds Fabrication -- 1.3.1 Solvent Casting -- 1.3.2 Salt-leaching -- 1.3.3 Gas Foaming -- 1.3.4 Phase Separation -- 1.3.5 Electrospinning -- 1.3.6 Self-assembly -- 1.3.7 Rapid Prototyping -- 1.3.8 Membrane Lamination -- 1.3.9 Freeze Drying -- 1.4 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 2. Ceramic Scaffolds, Current Issues and Future Trends -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Essential Properties and Current Problems of Ceramic Scaffolds -- 2.3 Approaches to Overcome Ceramic Scaffolds Issues for the Next Generation of Scaffolds -- 2.4 Silk - a Bioactive Material -- 2.5 Conclusions and Future Trends -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 3. Preparation of Porous Scaffolds from Ice Particulate Templates for Tissue Engineering -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Preparation of Porous Scaffolds Using Ice Particulates as Porogens -- 3.3 Preparation of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds Using Embossed Ice Particulate Templates -- 3.3.1 Overview of Protocol -- 3.3.2 Preparation of Funnel-like Collagen Sponges -- 3.3.3 Preparation of Funnel-like Chitosan Sponges -- 3.3.4 Preparation of Funnel-like Hyaluronic Acid Sponges -- 3.3.5 Preparation of Funnel-like Collagen-glycosaminoglycan Sponges -- 3.4 Application of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds in Three-dimensional Cell Culture -- 3.5 Application of Funnel-like Collagen Sponges in Cartilage Tissue Engineering -- 3.6 Summary -- References -- 4. Fabrication of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Using the Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying Technique and Characteristics of the Scaffolds -- 4.1 Introduction.

4.2 Materials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds -- 4.3 Fabrication Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds -- 4.4 Fabrication of Pure Polymer Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds -- 4.5 Fabrication of Polymer Blend Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds -- 4.6 Fabrication of Nanocomposite Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds -- 4.7 Surface Modification for PHBV-based Scaffolds -- 4.8 Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 5. Electrospun Nanofiber and Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Biodegradable Materials for Tissue Engineering -- 5.3 Nanofibrous Scaffolds -- 5.3.1 Technologies to Fabricate Nanofibers -- 5.3.2 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of Nanofibrous Scaffold -- 5.4 Stem Cells: A Potential Tool for Tissue Engineering -- 5.4.1 Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering and Regeneration -- 5.4.2 Effect of Stem Cells on Electrospun Nanofibrous Scaffolds -- 5.5 Prospects -- Acknowledgement -- References -- 6. Materials at the Interface Tissue-Implant -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Description of the Tissue-Implant Interface -- 6.3 Expected Function of the Materials at the Interface and their Evaluation and Selection -- 6.3.1 General Purpose Non-biological Materials -- 6.3.2 General Purpose Natural Materials and Biopolymers -- 6.3.3 Other Regenerative Biomaterials and Techniques -- 6.3.4 Future Approaches -- 6.4 Experimental Techniques for the Tissue-Implant Interface -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- 7. Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Tissue Regeneration -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) -- 7.2.1 Self-renewal of MSCs -- 7.2.2 Heterogeneity of MSCs -- 7.2.3 MSCs from Different Types of Tissues -- 7.2.4 MSCs, Progenitor Cells and Precursor Cells.

7.2.5 Differentiation Potential of MSCs -- 7.2.6 Dedifferentiation and Transdifferentiation of hMSCs -- 7.3 Understanding the Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) -- 7.3.1 Integrins and Their Role in Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) -- 7.3.2 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Niche -- 7.3.3 Immunomodulatory Effect of MSCs -- 7.4 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Culture -- 7.4.1 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Isolation -- 7.4.2 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Expansion -- 7.4.3 Media for Inducing Osteogenic Differentiation in MSCs -- 7.5 Characterization of MSCs -- 7.5.1 Microscopy Techniques -- 7.5.2 Differentiation and Cell Proliferation Assays for MSCs -- 7.6 MSCs in Bone Remodeling, Fracture Repair and Their Use in Bone Tissue Engineering Applications -- 7.7 Influence of External Stimuli on MSC Behavior -- 7.7.1 Role of Mechanical Stimulus on hMSCs -- 7.7.2 Role of Electrical Stimulus on MSCs -- 7.8 Perspectives on Future of hMSCs in Tissue Engineering -- References -- 8. Endochondral Bone Tissue Engineering -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells -- 8.2.1 Tissue Engineering -- 8.2.2 Stem Cells -- 8.2.3 Bone Tissue Engineering -- 8.2.4 Bone Tissue Engineering via the Endochondral Pathway -- 8.3 Scaffolds -- 8.3.1 General Requirements of Scaffolds -- 8.3.2 Scaffolds for Endochondral Tissue Engineering -- 8.3.2.1 Hydrogels -- 8.3.2.2 Synthetic Polymer Woven Structure -- 8.3.2.3 Calcium Phosphate (CaP) Ceramics -- 8.4 Summary -- References -- 9. Principles, Applications, and Technology of Craniofacial Bone Engineering -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1 Anatomy and Physiology of Craniofacial Bone -- 9.1.2 Functional Characteristics of Craniofacial Tissues -- 9.1.2.1 Bone Strength -- 9.1.2.2 Effect of Forces -- 9.1.2.3 Angiogenesis in Bone Physiology -- 9.1.3 Prevalence of Craniofacial Congenital Anomalies and Acquired Defects -- 9.1.3.1 Congenital Anomalies.

9.1.3.2 Acquired Defects -- 9.2 Road Map for the Application of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine for Craniofacial Bone Regeneration -- 9.2.1 Vascularization and Its Strategies -- 9.3 Stem Cell-based Craniofacial Bone Engineering -- 9.3.1 The Stem Cell Concept: Recreating the Local Tissue Microenvironment -- 9.3.2 Applied Stem Cell-based Craniofacial Bone Engineering -- 9.3.3 Additional Viable Stem Cell Sources for Craniofacial Bone Engineering -- 9.4 Biomaterial-based Therapy in Craniofacial Bone Engineering -- 9.4.1 Surface Biomimetism -- 9.5 Principles of Imaging in Craniofacial Bone Regeneration -- 9.5.1 Modeling of, Preparation for, and Planning Tissue Engineering -- 9.5.2 Image Guided Design -- 9.5.3 Follow-up and Assessment -- 9.5.4 Medical Imaging Techniques for Craniofacial Bone Engineering -- 9.5.4.1 Plain X-rays -- 9.5.4.2 Computed Tomography (CT)-based Methods -- 9.5.4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging -- 9.5.4.4 Future Methods: High Frequency Ultrasound Imaging -- 9.6 Current Clinical Application and Future Direction in the Field of Craniofacial Bone Engineering -- 9.6.1 Current Treatments of Bone Defects -- 9.6.2 Modern Treatment of Bone Defects -- 9.6.3 Some Examples of Tissue Engineering Materials and Clinical Trials -- 9.7 Future Prospects -- 9.8 Economics and Marketing -- 9.9 Conclusions -- References -- 10. Functionally-Graded Biomimetic Vascular Grafts for Enhanced Tissue Regeneration and Bio-integration -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Approaches in Vascular Tissue Engineering -- 10.3 Nanostructured Scaffolds for Vascular Tissue Engineering -- 10.3.1 Electrospinning for Producing ECM-like Fibers -- 10.3.2 Biomimetic Electrospun Vascular Scaffolds -- 10.4 Functionally-Graded Tubular Scaffolds -- 10.4.1 Graded-Tissue Design in Native Vessels -- 10.4.1.1 Biomimetic Multi-layered Tubular Scaffolds.

10.4.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Trilayered Tubular Grafts -- 10.4.2 Biodegradation Characteristics of Trilayered Grafts -- 10.4.3 In Vitro Cell Interactions and In Vivo Performance -- 10.5 Summary and Future Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- List of Abbreviations Used -- References -- 11. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors in Tissue Engineering: Challenges and Prospects for Therapeutic Angiogenesis -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 VEGF and Angiogenesis -- 11.3 VEGF Family -- 11.4 VEGF Therapy -- 11.5 VEGF Delivery Systems -- 11.6 Soft versus Hard Tissues -- 11.7 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Index.