Front Cover -- Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials and Technologies -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- List of Contributors -- Overview -- Impact of Silicon MEMS-30 years after -- Introduction -- Towards Mass Volumes of MEMS Devices -- Ink Jet Printer Nozzles Create the Industry -- Automotive Applications Drive the Reliability and the Quality -- Leaps Towards a Generic Manufacturing Platform -- Towards Every Pocket -- Mobile Phones and Mobile Multimedia Computers -- Ubiquitous Sensing, Computing and Communication -- Future of MEMS Technologies -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- PART I: Silicon as MEMS Material -- Chapter 1 Properties of Silicon -- 1.1 Properties of Silicon -- References -- Chapter 2 Czochralski Growth of Silicon Crystals -- 2.1 The CZ Crystal-Growing Furnace -- 2.2 Stages of Growth Process -- 2.3 Issues of Crystal Growth -- 2.4 Improved Thermal and Gas Flow Designs -- 2.5 Heat Transfer -- 2.6 Melt Convection -- 2.7 Magnetic Fields -- 2.8 Hot Recharging -- References -- Further reading -- Chapter 3 Properties of Silicon Crystals -- 3.1 Dopants and Impurities -- 3.2 Typical Impurity Concentrations -- 3.3 Concentration of Dopants and Impurities in Axial Direction -- 3.4 Resistivity -- 3.5 Radial Variation of Impurities and Resistivity -- 3.6 Thermal Donors -- 3.7 Defects in Silicon Crystals -- 3.8 Control of Vacancies, Interstitials, and the OISF Ring -- 3.9 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 4 Oxygen in Silicon -- 4.1 Oxygen in Solid Solution -- 4.2 Formation of Small Oxygen Aggregates -- 4.3 Precipitation of Oxygen -- 4.4 Precipitate-Induced Defects -- 4.5 Behavior of Oxygen in Basic Heat Treatment Procedures -- References -- Chapter 5 Silicon Wafers: Preparation and Properties -- 5.1 Silicon Wafer Manufacturing Process -- 5.2 Standard Measurements of Polished Wafers.

5.3 Sample Specifications of MEMS Wafers -- 5.4 Standards of Silicon Wafers -- References -- Chapter 6 Epi Wafers: Preparation and Properties -- 6.1 Silicon Epitaxy-The Basics -- 6.2 The Epi-Poly Process -- 6.3 Etch Stop Layers -- 6.4 Epi on SOI Substrates -- 6.5 Selective Epitaxy and Epitaxial Layer Overgrowth -- 6.6 Metrology -- 6.7 Commercially Available Epitaxy Systems -- 6.8 Summary -- References -- Chapter 7 Thick-Film SOI Wafers: Preparation and Properties -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Overview of SOI -- 7.3 Silicon Wafer Parameters for Direct Bonding -- 7.4 Fabrication of Thick-Film BSOI by Mechanical Grinding and Polishing -- 7.5 BESOI Process -- 7.6 Techniques Based on Thin-Film SOI and Silicon Epitaxy -- 7.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 Silicon Dioxides -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Growth Methods of Silicon Dioxide -- 8.3 Structure and Properties of Silicon Dioxides -- 8.4 Processing of Silicon Dioxides -- References -- PART II: Modeling in MEMS Methods -- Chapter 9 Multiscale Modeling -- 9.1 Microscopic and Macroscopic Equations -- 9.2 Computational Methods -- References -- Chapter 10 Manufacture and Processing of MEMS Structures -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Requirements for Modeling Micromachining -- 10.3 Micromachining As a Front Propagation Problem -- 10.4 Anisotropic Etching: Geometrical Simulators -- 10.5 Anisotropic Etching: Atomistic Simulators -- 10.6 A Survey of Etching Simulators -- References -- Chapter 11 Mechanical Properties of Silicon Microstructures -- 11.1 Basic Structural Properties of Crystalline Silicon -- 11.2 Dislocations in Silicon -- 11.3 Physical Mechanisms of Fracture in Silicon -- 11.4 Physical Mechanisms of Fatigue of Silicon -- References -- Additional References -- Chapter 12 Electrostatic and RF-Properties of MEMS Structures -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Model System for a Dynamic Micromechanical Device.

12.3 Electrical Equivalent Circuit -- 12.4 Electrostatic Force -- 12.5 Electromechanical Coupling -- 12.6 Sensing of Motion -- 12.7 Pull-in Phenomenon -- 12.8 Parasitic Capacitance -- 12.9 Effect of Built-in Potential on Capacitively Coupled MEMS-Devices -- 12.10 Further Effects of Electrostatic Nonlinearities from Applications Point of View -- 12.11 RF-Properties -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 13 Optical Modeling of MEMS -- 13.1 Optical Properties of Silicon and Related Materials -- 13.2. Theoretical Background -- 13.3 Numerical Modeling Methods for Optical MEMS -- References -- Chapter 14 Gas Damping in Vibrating MEMS Structures -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Damping Dominated by Gas Viscosity -- 14.3 First-Order Frequency Dependencies -- 14.4 Viscoacoustic Models -- 14.5 Simulation Tools -- References -- PART III: Measuring MEMS -- Chapter 15 Introduction to Measuring MEMS -- 15.1 On MEMS Measurements -- 15.2 Variation and Mapping -- 15.3 MEMS Measurement Challenges -- References -- Chapter 16 Silicon Wafer and Thin Film Measurements -- 16.1 Important Measurements -- 16.2 Wafer Shape -- 16.3 Resistivity -- 16.4 Thickness of Thin Films -- References -- Chapter 17 Optical Measurement of Static and Dynamic Displacement in MEMS -- 17.1 Camera-Based Measurements -- References -- Chapter 18 MEMS Residual Stress Characterization: Methodology and Perspective -- 18.1 Introduction -- 18.2 MEMS residual stress characterization techniques -- 18.3 Perspective and Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 19 Strength of Bonded Interfaces -- 19.1 Solid Mechanics -- 19.2 Double Cantilever Beam Test Method -- 19.3 Tensile Test Method -- 19.4 Blister Test Method -- 19.5 Chevron Test Structures -- 19.6 Summary and Outlook -- References -- Chapter 20 Focused Ion and Electron Beam Techniques -- 20.1 Brief Introduction to DualBeam Instrumentation.

20.2 FIB for Direct Milling and Deposition of Structures -- 20.3 SEM for Direct Deposition or Lithography of Structures -- 20.4 DualBeam Applications of FA and Characterization of MEMS Devices -- Reference -- Chapter 21 Oxygen and Bulk Microdefects in Silicon -- 21.1 Measuring Oxygen in Silicon -- 21.2 Measuring Bulk Microdefects -- References -- PART IV: Micromachining Technologies in MEMS -- Chapter 22 MEMS Lithography -- 22.1 Lithography Considerations Before Wafer Processing -- 22.2 Wafers in Lithography Process -- 22.3 Processing After Lithography -- 22.4 Thick Photoresist Lithography -- References -- Chapter 23 Deep Reactive Ion Etching -- 23.1 Etch Chemistries -- 23.2 Equipment -- 23.3 DRIE Processes -- 23.4 DRIE Advanced Issues and Challenges -- 23.5 DRIE Applications -- 23.6 Post-DRIE Etch Treatments -- 23.7 Choosing between Wet and Dry Etching -- References -- Chapter 24 Wet Etching of Silicon -- 24.1 Basic Description of Anisotropic Etching: Faceting -- 24.2 Beyond Faceting: Atomistic Phenomena -- 24.3 Beyond Atomistics: Electrochemistry -- 24.4 Typical Surface Morphologies (I. Zubel and M.A. Gosálvez) -- 24.5 Effects from Silicon Wafer Features (E. Viinikka) -- 24.6 Convex Corner Undercutting -- 24.7 Examples of Wet Etching -- 24.8 Popular Wet Etchants -- 24.9 Temperature Dependence of the Etch Rate -- 24.10. Concentration Dependence of the Etch Rate -- 24.11 Other Variables Affecting the Etch-Rate Values -- 24.12 Experimental Determination of Etch Rates -- 24.13 Converting Between Different Measures of Concentration -- References -- Chapter 25 Porous Silicon Based MEMS -- 25.1 Porous Silicon Background -- 25.2 PS Sacrificial Layer Technologies -- 25.3 PS Fabrication Technology -- 25.4 Microscopic Processes Underlying PS Formation -- 25.5 Formation of Silicon Microstructures -- 25.6 Application Examples -- 25.7 Summary and Conclusions.

References -- Chapter 26 Atomic Layer Deposition in MEMS Technology -- 26.1 Atomic Layer Deposition: An Introduction -- 26.2 Operation Principles of ALD -- 26.3 ALD Processes -- 26.4 Characteristics of ALD Processes and Films -- 26.5 ALD Reactors -- 26.6 Applications for ALD in MEMS -- 26.7 Outlook -- References -- Chapter 27 Metallic Glass -- 27.1 Introduction -- 27.2 Glassy/Amorphous Metals -- 27.3 Properties of Metallic Glasses -- 27.4 Microfabrication Ability of BMGs -- 27.5 Nanoforming Ability of Glassy Metals (Below 100 nm) -- 27.6 Applications of BMGs in MEMS -- 27.7 Metallic Glass Thin Films: A Pathway to Integrated MEMS -- 27.8 Micro/Nanofabrication Ability of Glassy Thin Films -- References -- Chapter 28 Surface Micromachining -- 28.1 Polycrystalline Silicon-Based Micromachining -- 28.2 Integration Concepts -- 28.3 Metallic MEMS -- 28.4 SOI-Wafer-Based Surface Micromachining -- References -- Chapter 29 Silicon Based BioMEMS: Micromachining Technologies -- 29.1 Introduction to Silicon Based BioMEMS Devices -- 29.2 Silicon BioMEMS for Health Care -- 29.3 Silicon BioMEMS for Biological Detection -- 29.4 Conclusions and Future Research Areas -- References -- PART V: Encapsulation of MEMS Components -- Chapter 30 Introduction to Encapsulation of MEMS -- 30.1 Early Work on Bulk-MEMS Devices -- 30.2 Encapsulation in Surface Micromachining -- 30.3 Protection of the MEMS Device -- 30.4 Controlled Atmosphere -- 30.5 Structural Functions -- 30.6 Wafer Bonding Methods -- 30.7 Sealing by Film Deposition -- 30.8 Via Technologies -- References -- Chapter 31 Silicon Direct Bonding -- 31.1 Hydrophilic High-Temperature Wafer Bonding -- 31.2 Hydrophobic High-Temperature Bonding of Silicon -- 31.3 Low-Temperature Direct Bonding of Silicon -- 31.4 Direct Bonding of CVD Oxides -- 31.5 Direct Bonding of CVD Silicon -- References -- Chapter 32 Anodic Bonding.

32.1 Introduction.