LANGUAGE ENGINEERING AND TRANSLATION CONSEQUENCES OF AUTOMATION -- Editorial page -- Title page -- Copyright page -- Acknowledgements -- Table of contents -- Preface. Translation in an Industrial Setting -- Chapter One. The Language Industry and its Raw Material -- 1. The Language Industry and Translation -- 1.1 The industrialisation of communication -- 1.2 The scope of 'Language Industry' -- 1.2.1 Support industry -- 1.2.2 Industry for processing languages -- 1.2.3 Industry for the production of languages -- 1.2.4 Tools and Products -- 1.3 The evolution of the language industry -- 1.3.1 The present situation -- 1.3.2 The role of linguistic research -- 1.4 The structure of the language industry -- 1.4.1 Science and application -- 1.4.2 Range of written and spoken languages -- 1.4.3 Reception and production -- 1.4.4 Applications and products -- 1.5 Conditions for the design and application of industrial tools -- 1.5.1 Conditions for the development of the machine translation industry -- 2. Theoretical Aspects of Language -- 2.1 The nature and uses of language -- 2.2 The intention of speech acts -- 2.2.1 The pragmatic dimension of speech acts -- 2.3 The concept of sublanguages -- 2.3.1 Criteria for establishing sublanguages -- 2.4 Evolution and types of language varieties -- 2.5 Natural and artificial languages -- 2.5.1 Characteristics of natural language -- 2.5.2 Characteristics of artificial languages -- 2.6 The evolution of restricted languages -- 2.7 Definition of special subject languages -- 2.7.1 Disciplines and subject fields -- 2.7.1.1 Special knowledge reflected in texts -- 2.7.1.2 Special knowledge and reference -- 2.7.2 Special usage -- 2.7.3 Special restrictions -- Chapter Two. Communication Theory for Translation -- 3. Elements of a Communication Theory -- 3.1 The environment of communication -- 3.2 Preconditions of communication.

3.2.1 Communicative situations -- 3.2.2 The situation of the written speech act -- 3.2.3 Components of the speech act -- 3.2.3.1 The stimulus -- 3.2.3.2 Temporal factors -- Point of time -- Duration -- Time lag -- Regularity -- 3.2.3.3 Spatial factors -- 3.2.3.4 Personal factors -- 3.3 Choices in communication -- 3.3.1 Choice of content of the message (its topic and aspect) -- 3.3.1.1 Topic -- 3.3.1.2 Aspect -- 3.3.2 Choice of purpose (Intention + Expectation) -- 3.3.2.1 Social purpose -- 3.3.2.2 Informative purpos -- 3.3.2.3 Directive purpose -- 3.3.2.4 Discursive purpose -- 3.3.2.5 Evaluative purpose -- 3.3.3 Choice of affectivity -- 3.3.4 Choice of language -- 3.3.5 Choice oftext types -- 3.3.6 Choice of techniques of communication -- 3.3.6.1 Choice of non-linguistic vs mixed linguistic/nonlinguistic communication -- 3.3.6.2 Choice of external form -- 3.3.6.3 Choice of technical means -- 3.3.6.4 Choice of axes of expression -- 3.3.6.4.1 Geographical variation -- 3.3.6.4.2 Topic dependence -- 3.3.6.4.3 Level -- 33.6.4.4 Formality -- Frozen & formal -- Casual & intimate -- Consultative -- 4. A Theory of Text Types and Messages -- 4.1 Text types -- 4.1.1 Macro text types in science and technology -- 4.1.1.1 Schedule -- 4.1.1.2 Memo -- 4.1.1.3 Essay -- 4.1.1.4 Report -- 4.1.2 Reader recognition of text type -- 4.1.3 Criteria for defining a textual unit -- 4.1.3.1 The concept of textuality -- 4.1.3.2 Text types as efficient units of communication -- 4.1.4 Inter-related texts -- 4.1.4.1 Formal inter-relation -- 4.1.4.2 Content inter-relation -- 4.1.4.3 Inter-relation by imitation -- 4.2 A model of document production and reception -- 4.2.1 The role of participants in production and reception -- 4.2.2 Production -- 4.2.3 Reception and understanding -- 4.2.3.1 Primary and secondary reader -- 4.2.3.2 Assistance in reading-understanding -- 4.2.4 The product.

4.2.4.1 Text and message from the writer perspective -- 4.2.4.2 Text and message from the reader' s viewpoint -- 4.3 Criteria for successful communication -- 4.3.1 Knowledge -- 4.3.2 Cooperation -- 4.3.3 Relevance -- 4.4 Text modification -- 4.4.1 Types of document modification -- 4.4.1.1 Correction -- 4.4.1.2 Editing -- 4.4.1.3 Derivation -- 4.4.2 Types of derived texts -- 4.4.3 Methods of modification -- 4.4.3.1 Transformation -- 4.4.3.2 Translation -- 4.4.4 The professions concerned with text modification -- 4.4.5 Criteria for successful modification -- Chapter Three. Theoretical Aspects of Translation -- 5. The Nature of Translation -- 5.1 The scope of theories of translation -- 5.1.1 Two aspects of translation -- 5.1.1.1 Process -- 5.1.1.2 Products -- 5.1.2 Dimensions of a theory -- 5.1.2.1 Communicative/author dimension -- 5.1.2.2 Document or product dimension -- 5.1.2.3 Reader/agent/recipient dimension -- 5.1.2.4 Motivation/translator dimension -- 5.1.2.5 Situational dimension -- 5.1.3 Machine translation as a new activity and product -- 5.2 The meanings of translation -- 5.2.1 Existing definitions of translation -- 5.2.2 Other meanings of translation -- 5.3 The concept of translatability -- 5.3.1 The legitimacy of translation -- 5.3.2 Cultural arguments -- 5.3.3 Philosophical arguments -- 5.3.4 Measures of translatability -- 5.4 The basis of a theory of translation -- 5.4.1 Process model of translation -- 5.4.2 Translation situations -- 5.5 The concept of equivalence -- 5.6 Evaluation of translation -- 5.6.1 Criteria for evaluation -- 6. Specifications: Factors Influencing the Translation Process -- 6.1 Conditions for modelling the translation process -- 6.1.1 Basic approaches to translation techniques -- 6.2 Existing models of the translation process -- 6.3 Major types of translation activities -- 6.3.1 Literary translation.

6.3.2 Bible translation -- 6.3.3 Industrial translation -- 6.4 Analysis of the translation task -- 6.4.1 Alternative views of the task -- 6.5 Specification phase -- 6.5.1 Identification of source language document -- 6.5.1.1 Recognition of text type and topic -- 6.5.1.2 Recognition of intention -- 6.5.2 Interpretation of specifications -- 6.5.2.1 The situation of the translation process -- 6.5.2.2 Time and cost factors -- 6.5.2.3 The condition of the translator -- 6.5.2.4 Writer and reader factors -- 6.5.2.5 User expectation -- 6.5.2.6 Source and product (textual) factors -- 6.6 Functional types of translation -- 6.6.1 Autonomous documents -- 6.6.2 Interdependent documents -- 6.6.2.1 Parallel documents -- 6.6.2.2 Full equal document -- 6.6.3 Derived documents -- 6.6.3.1 Selective document translation (Excerpts) -- 6.6.3.2 Reduced document translation (Abstracts) -- 6.6.3.3 Translations with the same function -- 6.6.3.4 Translations with a different function -- Target language text type -- Translation text type -- 6.6.4 Functional types of translation by intention -- 6.6.5 Other functional types of translation -- Chapter Four. A Model of the Translation Process -- 7 Preparation for Translation -- 7.1 Choice of target language text type -- 7.2 Choice of translation strategy -- 7.2.1 Motivation of diverse translation strategies -- 7.2.1.1 Full, reduced and selective translation -- 7.2.1.2 Temporal segmentation of the process -- 7.2.2 The impact of electronic devices on the choice of strategy -- 7.2.2.1 Choice of machine assistance or MT -- 7.2.3 The interaction of choices -- 7.3 Reading Comprehension: Human text understanding -- 7.3.1 The knowledge dimension of text understanding -- 7.3.2 The pragmatic dimension of text understanding -- 7.3.3 The linguistic dimension of text understanding -- 7.3.4 The limits imposed on comprehension.

7.3.4.1 Implications for the automatic analysis of texts -- 7.3.4.2 Translator competence -- 7.4 Dictionary look-up -- 7.4.1 Modes of dictionary consultation -- 7.5 Electronic tools to support dictionary consultation -- 8 Steps in Translation -- 8.1 The translation process -- 8.1.1 Translation units -- 8.1.2 A psycholinguistic model -- 8.1.3 Modes of processing -- 8.1.4 Extension of the existing model -- 8.2 Resolution of ambiguity -- 8.3 Search for equivalents -- 8.3.1 Units of equivalence -- 8.4 Translation techniques -- 8.5 Matching -- 8.5.1 Lexical matching -- 8.5.2 Syntactic matching -- 8.5.3 Pragmatic matching -- 8.5.4 The need for pre-established match -- 8.5.5 Criteria for efficient matching -- 8.6 Compensation -- 8.7 Text production/encoding -- 8.8 Evaluation and revision -- 8.8.1 Content comparison and contr -- 8.8.2 Revision -- 8.8.3 Criteria for evaluation -- 8.9 Presentation -- Chapter Five. The Automated Dimension of Translation -- 9 Human and Machine Translation -- 9.1 Modes of comparison -- 9.2 Comparison of the translation processes -- 9.2.1 Translation as problem solving -- 9.2.2 The expert system view -- 9.2.2.1 The type and nature of knowledge bases -- 9.2.3 The nature of the modules in the MT process -- 9.2.3.1 Comprehension vs. analysis -- 9.2.3.2 Matching vs. transfer -- 9.2.3.3 Writing vs. generation -- 9.2.4 Current limitations of MT -- 9.3 Comparison of human and machine translation products -- 9.3.1 Human vs. machine-produced texts -- 9.3.1.1 The nature of machine-generated (MT) language -- 9.3.2 Flexibility vs. rigidity in text types -- 9.4 Uses of MT -- 9.5 Comparative evaluation of MT produced texts -- 9.5.1 Methods of MT evaluation -- 10 The Pragmatic Circumstances of Automation in Translation -- 10.1 Methods of MT -- 10.1.1 Linguistic approaches -- 10.1.2 The semantic approach -- 10.2 Users of MT systems.

10.2.1 The translator as producer.