Acknowledgements -- Abbreviations -- 1 The Directionality of the Transmission of the Jesus and Gospel Traditions: A History of Research -- 1.1 Herman Gunkel -- 1.2 Sitz im Leben Unidirectionality from Judaeo-Palestinian into Hellenistic Tradition -- 1.2.1 Martin Dibelius -- 1.2.2 Rudolf Bultmann -- 1.2.3 Gerd Theissen -- 1.3 Modal Unidirectionality from Oral into Written Tradition -- 1.3.1 Scandinavian School -- 1.3.1.1 Harald Riesenfeld -- 1.3.1.2 Birger Gerhardsson -- 1.3.2 Orality Theory -- 1.3.2.1 Werner Kelber -- 1.3.2.2 Joanna Dewey -- 1.3.3 The Earliest Written Tradition: Earle Ellis -- 1.4 Linguistic Unidirectionality from Aramaic into Greek Tradition -- 1.4.1 Aramaic Language as a Criterion -- 1.4.1.1 Charles C. Torrey -- 1.4.1.2 Matthew Black -- 1.4.1.3 Joachim Jeremias -- 1.4.1.4 Joseph Fitzmyer -- 1.4.2 Greek Language as a Criterion -- 1.4.2.1 Alexander Roberts -- 1.4.2.2 Aubrey Argyle -- 1.4.2.3 Nigel Turner -- 1.4.2.4 Robert Gundry -- 1.4.2.5 Stanley Porter -- 1.5 Interdirectionality Hypothesis -- 1.5.1 Sitz im Leben Interdirectionality: Martin Hengel -- 1.5.2 Modal Interdirectionality -- 1.5.2.1 Form Criticism: Helmut Koester -- 1.5.2.2 Textual Criticism: David Parker -- 1.5.2.3 Scandinavian School: Samuel Byrskog -- 1.5.2.4 Liturgical Use and Canon Formation: Harry Gamble -- 1.5.2.5 Notebook Theory: Graham Stanton and Richard Bauckham -- 1.5.3 Linguistic Interdirectionality: E. P. Sanders -- 1.5.4 Interdirectionality Hypotheses and Gospel Studies -- Part I: Bilingualism of First-Century Palestine and the Roman Near East -- 2 Bilingualism and Diglossia -- 2.1 Definitions -- 2.1.1 Bilingualism -- 2.1.2 Bilingual Community -- 2.1.3 Bilingualism and Multilingualism -- 2.1.4 Early Bilingualism vs. Late Bilingualism -- 2.1.5 Primary Bilingualism vs. Acquired Bilingualism.

2.1.6 Oral Bilingualism vs. Literate Bilingualism -- 2.1.7 Stages of Bilingualism -- 2.1.8 Balanced Bilingualism vs. Dominant Bilingualism -- 2.1.9 Matrix Language vs. Embedded Language -- 2.1.10 Substratum, Adstratum and Superstratum -- 2.1.11 Ancestor, Daughter and Sister Language -- 2.2 Diglossia in First Century Palestine? -- 2.2.1 Charles Ferguson -- 2.2.2 Joshua Fishman -- 2.2.3 Pinchas Lapide -- 2.2.4 Chaim Rabin -- 2.2.5 Bernard Spolsky -- 2.2.6 Jonathan Watt -- 2.3 Bilingualism and Diglossia Models -- 2.3.1 Characteristics of the Four Languages in First-Century Palestine -- 2.3.2 Language Preference Theory -- 2.3.3 Maximalism and Minimalism -- 2.3.4 Biliteracy of First-Century Palestine -- 3 Bilingualism of Jews in First-Century Palestine -- 3.1 Regional Bilingualism -- 3.1.1 Inscriptional Evidence -- 3.1.2 Papyrological Evidence -- 3.1.3 Population Geographical Evidence -- 3.2 Personal Bilingualism -- 3.2.1 Military Invasion and Colonization -- 3.2.2 Migration or Inflow -- 3.2.3 Ethnic Awareness -- 3.2.4 Bilingual Parents or Region -- 3.2.5 Formal Education -- 3.2.6 Occupation -- 3.3 Bilingualism of First-Century Palestine and Interdirectionality -- 4 Bilingualism of Jews in the First-Century Diaspora -- 4.1 Grounds for Bilingualism in the Jewish Diaspora -- 4.1.1 Bilingualism of the Roman Empire -- 4.1.2 Successive Immigration -- 4.1.3 Periodic Connection with Jerusalem -- 4.1.4 Learning Aramaic in Jerusalem -- 4.2 Alexandria -- 4.2.1 Bilingualism of Ptolemaic and Early Roman Alexandria -- 4.2.2 Archaeological Evidence -- 4.2.3 Successive Immigration -- 4.2.4 Periodic Connection with Jerusalem -- 4.3 Antioch -- 4.3.1 Bilingualism of Roman Antioch -- 4.3.2 Bilingualism of the Antiochene Jews -- 4.3.3 Bilingualism of the Antiochene Christians.

4.4 Bilingualism of the Jewish Diaspora and Interdirectionality -- 5 The Bilingualism of the Earliest Christian Church in Jerusalem -- 5.1 The State of Affairs -- 5.2 Bilingualism of the Hebrews and Hellenists -- 5.2.1 Hebrews: Aramaic-Matrix Christians -- 5.2.2 Hellenists: Greek-Matrix Christians -- 5.3 The Bilingual Seven -- 5.3.1 Onomastica -- 5.3.2 Geographical Evidence -- 5.3.2.1 Caesarea Maritima -- 5.3.2.2 Samaria -- 5.3.2.3 Ethiopia -- 5.3.2.4 Antioch -- 5.3.3 Performance of Their Duty -- 5.4 Bilingualism of the Jerusalem Church and the Interdirectionality of the Jesus Tradition -- Part II: Interdirectional Transmission of the Jesus and Gospel Traditions in Bilingual Contexts at the Levels of Syntax, Phonology, and Semantics -- 6 Syntax -- 6.1 Contact-Induced Syntactic Change Hypothesis in New Testament Scholarship -- 6.1.1 Adolf Deissmann -- 6.1.2 Linguistic Relatedness between Syntactic Changes -- 6.1.3 Bilingual Jewish Greek Theory -- 6.1.4 Hellenistic Greek Theory -- 6.1.5 Semitisms and Septuagintalisms -- 6.2 Internal-Induced Syntactic Change Hypothesis -- 6.2.1 Comparisons between Cognitive Linguistics and Other Linguistic Theories -- 6.2.1.1 Theoretical and Empirical -- 6.2.1.2 Diachronic and Synchronic -- 6.2.1.3 Langue and Parole -- 6.2.1.4 Significance of Semantics -- 6.2.2 Some Basic Concepts -- 6.2.2.1 Grammaticalization -- 6.2.2.2 Unidirectionality Hypothesis -- 6.2.2.3 Five Principles of Grammaticalization -- 6.2.2.4 Metaphor and Metonymy -- 6.2.2.5 Abstractness -- 6.2.2.6 Grammatical Polysemy -- 6.2.3 Grammaticalization and Language Contact -- 6.3 Syntactic Change of New Testament Greek as Grammatical Polysemy -- 6.3.1 Verbs -- 6.3.1.1 SAY Verb: λέγω -- 6.3.1.2 Movement Verbs: ἔρχομαι and πορεύομαι -- 6.3.1.3 Posture Verbs -- 6.3.1.3.1 στήκω and ἵστημι -- 6.3.1.3.2 ἀνίστημι and ἐγείρω -- 6.3.1.3.3 καθίζω and κάθημαι.

6.3.2 Conjunctions -- 6.3.2.1 Ἵνα -- 6.3.2.2 Ὅτι -- 6.3.3 Adverbs: Matthean τότε, Marcan εὐθύς, and Johannine οὖν -- 6.4 Syntactic Change as Grammatical Polysemy and Interdirectionality -- 7 Phonology -- 7.1 Linguistic Factors of Transliterated Variants in Bilingual Contexts -- 7.1.1 Different Phonetic System -- 7.1.2 Representation -- 7.1.3 Phonetic Change -- 7.1.4 Dialects -- 7.2 Three Views of Variant Spellings in Transliteration -- 7.2.1 Orthographical View -- 7.2.2 Variational View -- 7.2.2.1 Ephraim Speiser -- 7.2.2.2 James Barr -- 7.2.2.3 Alan Millard -- 7.2.2.4 Some Scholars of New Testament Greek -- 7.2.3 Bilingual View -- 7.3 Variant Spellings as Transliterated Allolexemes in Bilingual Contexts -- 7.3.1 Transliterated Allolexemes -- 7.3.2 Consonants -- 7.3.2.1 Plosives and Fricatives -- 7.3.2.2 Sibilants -- 7.3.2.3 Liquids -- 7.3.2.4 Gutturals -- 7.3.2.5 Additions of Consonants -- 7.3.3 Vowels -- 7.4 Variant Spellings as Transliterated Allolexemes in the Four Gospels and Acts -- 7.4.1 Local Proper Nouns -- 7.4.1.1Ἰερουσαλήμ and Ἱεροσόλυμα -- 7.4.1.2 Ναζαρά and Ναζαρέθ -- 7.4.1.3 Γεννησάρ and Γεννησαρέτ -- 7.4.2 Personal Proper Nouns -- 7.4.2.1 Σίμων/Συμεών and Πέτρος/Κηϕᾶς -- 7.4.2.2 Ἐλισάβη and Ἐλισάβετ -- 7.4.3 Other Transliterated Words -- 7.4.3.1 The Cry from the Cross -- 7.4.3.2 Μεσσίας/Χριστός -- 7.5 Variant Spellings as Allolexemes and Interdirectionality -- 8 Semantics -- 8.1 Aramaic Embedded Words as Codeswitching -- 8.1.1 Codeswitching, Interference, and Borrowing in a Bilingual Society -- 8.1.2 Codeswitching in New Testament Scholarship -- 8.1.3 Types of Codeswitching -- 8.1.4 Pragmatic Functions of Codeswitching -- 8.1.4.1 Vividness -- 8.1.4.2 Emphasis -- 8.1.4.3 Politeness -- 8.1.4.4 Solidarity -- 8.2 ἀμήν Found in All Four Gospels -- 8.3 Codeswitchings in the Gospel of Mark -- 8.3.1 Ἀββα ὁ πατήρ.

8.3.2 Ταλιθα κουμ and εφφαθα in the Miracle Stories -- 8.4 Codeswitchings in the Gospel of Luke and Acts -- 8.4.1 Language Change -- 8.4.2 Personal Names -- 8.4.2.1 Σιμών/Συμεών and Πέτρος/Κηφᾶς -- 8.4.2.2 Σαῦλος/Παῦλος and Σαούλ -- 8.4.3 Names of Places -- 8.4.3.1 Ἰερουσαλήμ and Ἱεροσόλυμα -- 8.4.3.2 Ναζαρά and Ναζαρέθ -- 8.5 Embedded Aramaic Words as Codeswitchings and Interdirectionality -- 9 Summary and Suggestions for Further Study -- 9.1 Summary of Results -- 9.2 The Gospel Tradition as Jesus Tradition -- 9.3 The Relationship between Historical Criticism and Literary Criticism -- 9.4 The Synoptic Problem -- 9.5 The Historical Jesus -- 9.6 Textual Criticism -- 9.7 Jewish Christianity and Gentile Christianity -- 9.8 Bilingual Christology -- Bibliography -- Index of Ancient Sources -- Index of Languages and Place Names -- Index of Modern Authors -- Index of Subjects.