Mucoadhesive Materials and Drug Delivery Systems -- Contents -- About the Editor -- List of Contributors -- Preface -- Section One: Structure and Physiology of Mucosal Surfaces in Relation to Drug Delivery -- 1 Oral Mucosa: Physiological and Physicochemical Aspects -- 1.1 Anatomical and Histological Aspects of Oral Cavity Tissues -- 1.1.1 Tissue Architecture -- 1.1.2 Innervation -- 1.1.3 Receptors -- 1.2 Production and Composition of Saliva -- 1.2.1 Major Salivary Glands -- 1.2.2 Minor Salivary Glands -- 1.2.3 Saliva Composition -- 1.2.4 Mucins -- 1.2.5 Proline-rich Proteins -- 1.2.6 Statherins -- 1.2.7 Cystatins -- 1.2.8 Histatins -- 1.2.9 Salivary Amylase -- 1.2.10 Diversity of Salivary Film -- 1.3 Surface Architecture, Mechanical, Rheological and Transport Properties of Salivary Pellicle -- 1.3.1 Ex Vivo Pellicle -- 1.3.2 Saliva Collection and Handling -- 1.3.3 Rheology -- 1.3.4 Interfacial Rheology -- 1.3.5 Adsorption and Surface Architecture -- 1.3.6 Surface Forces -- 1.3.7 Lubrication -- 1.3.8 Transport Properties -- 1.4 Future Perspective -- References -- 2 Anatomy of the Eye and the Role of Ocular Mucosa in Drug Delivery -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Anatomy of the Eye -- 2.2.1 Outer Membranes -- Conjunctiva, Cornea and Sclera -- 2.2.2 Aqueous Chamber, Lens and Vitreous Body -- 2.2.3 Choroid and Retina -- 2.3 Introduction to Ocular Mucosa -- 2.4 The Role of Ocular Mucosa in Drug Delivery -- 2.5 Models for Ocular Drug Delivery -- 2.6 Recent Advances in Topical Ocular Drug Delivery -- 2.6.1 Improving Corneal Retention -- 2.6.2 Other Topical Drug Delivery Options -- 2.7 Conclusions -- References -- 3 Drug Delivery Across the Nasal Mucosa -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Drug Delivery via the Nasal Mucosa -- 3.2.1 Drugs Administered for Local Action -- 3.2.2 Drugs Administered for Systemic Effect -- 3.2.3 Peptide and Protein Delivery.

3.3 Anatomy and Physiology of the Nasal Cavity -- 3.3.1 Structure and Function of the Nasal Cavity -- 3.3.2 Nasal Epithelia -- 3.3.3 Airflow -- 3.3.4 Nasal Secretions -- 3.3.5 Mucociliary Clearance -- 3.4 Disease States of the Nasal Cavity -- 3.4.1 Disease States Altering Drug Absorption -- 3.5 Transport Across the Membrane -- 3.5.1 Transport Across the Nasal Membrane -- 3.5.2 The Solute Carrier Family -- 3.5.3 Other Nasal Mucosa Transporters -- 3.5.4 Efflux -- 3.5.5 Paracellular Transport -- 3.6 Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery -- 3.7 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Gastrointestinal Mucosa and Mucus -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 General Gastrointestinal Physiology -- 4.2 The Gastrointestinal Mucus -- 4.2.1 What is Mucus? -- 4.2.2 Mucus Composition -- 4.2.3 Anatomy of Goblet Cells and Mucin Biosynthesis -- 4.2.4 Regulation of Mucus Secretion -- 4.2.5 Mucus Functions -- 4.2.6 Mucus Layer Structure: The Double-Layer Architecture -- 4.2.7 Mucus Thickness -- 4.2.8 Mucus Rheology -- 4.2.9 Mucus Turnover -- 4.2.10 Mucus and Ageing -- 4.2.11 Mucus and Gastrointestinal Disease -- 4.3 Conclusions -- References -- 5 Vaginal Mucosa and Drug Delivery -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Drug Delivery and the Human Vagina -- 5.2.1 Anatomical and Physiological Considerations -- 5.2.2 Present and New Therapeutic Uses -- 5.3 Vaginal Drug Dosage Forms -- 5.3.1 General Properties -- 5.3.2 Specific Vaginal Drug Dosage Forms -- 5.3.3 Considerations About Excipients -- 5.3.4 Applicators -- 5.4 Novel Strategies for Enhanced Vaginal Drug Delivery -- 5.5 Mucoadhesion and the Vaginal Environment -- 5.6 Vaginal Microbicides -- 5.7 Users' Acceptability and Preferences -- 5.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Section Two: Understanding of Mucoadhesion and Methods of Investigation -- 6 Structure and Properties of Mucins -- 6.1 Introduction.

6.2 General Characteristics of Mucins -- 6.2.1 Mucin Genes and Gene Organisation -- 6.2.2 Mucin Molecules, Structure and Organisation -- 6.3 Mucin Glycosylation - Changes in Disease -- 6.4 Dynamics of Mucin Synthesis and Function -- 6.5 Mucin Gel Formation on Cell Surfaces -- 6.5.1 Intermolecular Interactions in the Gel -- 6.5.2 Lipid Interactions -- 6.5.3 Layers in the Mucus Gel -- 6.5.4 Gel-On-Sol or Gel-On-Brush? -- 6.5.5 Organisation at the Surface of the Gel -- 6.5.6 Barrier Properties of Gels -- 6.5.7 Macro- Versus Nanoparticles -- 6.5.8 Bacterial Enzymes -- 6.5.9 Changes in Mucins During Infection -- 6.6 Mucin Therapeutics -- 6.7 Polysaccharide Coatings to Enable Probiotic Delivery -- 6.8 Gene Cloning and Drug Delivery -- 6.9 Chemo-Enzymatic Synthesis of O-Glycans for Drug Delivery -- 6.10 Glycan Legislation -- References -- 7 Theories of Mucoadhesion -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Mucous Membranes -- 7.3 Mucoadhesives -- 7.4 The Adhesive Interaction -- 7.4.1 Chemical Bonds -- 7.4.2 Theories of Adhesion -- 7.5 Mucoadhesion -- 7.6 Solid Mucoadhesion -- 7.6.1 Contact Stage -- 7.6.2 The Consolidation Stage -- 7.6.3 Joint Failure -- 7.6.4 Some Factors Affecting Solid Mucoadhesion -- 7.7 Semi-solid Mucoadhesion -- 7.8 Liquid Mucoadhesion -- 7.9 Modified Materials -- 7.10 Conclusions -- References -- 8 Methods to Study Mucoadhesive Dosage Forms -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Theories of Adhesion -- 8.1.2 Mucoadhesion -- 8.2 Model Surfaces for Mucoadhesion Evaluation -- 8.3 Methods to Evaluate Mucoadhesion Dosage Form -- 8.3.1 Tensile Assays -- 8.3.2 Shear Assays -- 8.3.3 Peel Test -- 8.3.4 Other Methods -- 8.3.5 In Vivo Studies -- 8.4 Summary -- References -- 9 Methods for Assessing Mucoadhesion: The Experience of an Integrative Approach -- 9.1 Mucins and Mucosal Architecture -- 9.2 Concept of Length and Time Scales in Mucoadhesion.

9.2.1 Molecular Interactions -- 9.2.2 Colloidal Interactions -- 9.2.3 Dynamic Aspects -- 9.2.4 Goldilock's Principle in Mucoadhesion -- 9.3 Experimental Approaches to Measuring Mucosal Interactions -- 9.3.1 Measuring Adhesion on the Molecular Level -- 9.3.2 Tribology of Mucoadhesive Contacts -- 9.3.3 Macroscopic Methods -- 9.3.4 In Vivo Methodologies -- 9.4 Integrative Approaches. Layer-by-Layer Assembled Multilayers: A Tool for Studying Mucoadhesion -- 9.4.1 The Aims of the Integrative Approach -- 9.4.2 Experimental Concept and Layer-by-Layer Multilayers -- 9.4.3 Mucin-Chitosan Layer-by-Layer Deposition and Visualisation -- 9.4.4 Molecular Interactions in Mucin-Chitosan Multilayers -- 9.4.5 Tribological Behaviour -- 9.4.6 Macroscopic Adhesion Measurements -- 9.4.7 In Vivo In-Mouth Imaging -- 9.4.8 Sensory Assessment: Qualitative Investigation of Texture and Mouth Feel -- 9.4.9 Summary of Outcomes of the Integrative Approach -- 9.5 Future Perspective -- References -- Section Three: Mucoadhesive Materials -- 10 Chitosan -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Material and Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan -- 10.2.1 Chemistry -- 10.2.2 Functional Characteristics of Chitosan -- 10.2.3 Factors Affecting Mucoadhesive Performance -- 10.2.4 Permeation Enhancing Effect -- 10.2.5 Swelling and Hydrogel Behaviour -- 10.2.6 Smart Properties -- 10.2.7 Controlled and Targeted Drug Delivery -- 10.3 Applications -- 10.3.1 Chitosan-Based Mucoadhesive Matrix Formulations - Case Examples -- 10.4 Material Characterisation of Bioadhesive Chitosan Formulations -- 10.4.1 Slide Test -- 10.4.2 Peel Strength Test -- 10.4.3 Texture Analysis -- 10.4.4 Hydrogel-Based Mucosal Substrate -- 10.5 Summary -- References -- 11 Thiomers -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Thiolated Polymers -- 11.2.1 Thiolation Techniques -- 11.2.2 Cationic Thiomers -- 11.2.3 Anionic Thiomers.

11.3 Sulfhydryl Group Contribution -- 11.3.1 Aliphatic Thiomers -- 11.3.2 Aromatic Thiomers -- 11.3.3 Preactivated Thiomers -- 11.4 Mechanism of Mucoadhesion -- 11.4.1 Formation of Disulfide Bonds with Mucoglyoproteins -- 11.4.2 In Situ Cross-Linking Mechanism -- 11.5 Mucoadhesive Properties -- 11.6 Additional Properties of Thiolated Polymers -- 11.6.1 Efflux Pump Inhibition -- 11.6.2 Permeation-Enhancing Effect -- 11.6.3 In Situ Gelling Properties -- 11.6.4 Controlled Drug Release Properties -- 11.7 Mucoadhesive Dosage Forms Based on Thiomers -- 11.7.1 Micro- and Nanoparticles -- 11.7.2 Matrix Tablets -- 11.7.3 Liquid Formulations -- 11.8 Biopharmaceutical Use of Thiomers -- 11.8.1 Oral Drug Delivery -- 11.8.2 Nasal Drug Delivery -- 11.8.3 Buccal Drug Delivery -- 11.8.4 Ocular Drug Delivery -- 11.8.5 Vaginal Drug Delivery -- 11.9 Safety and Stability -- 11.10 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Boronate-Containing Polymers -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Fundamentals of Borate and Boronate Interactions with Monoand Oligosaccharides -- 12.3 Multipoint Association of BCPs with Polysaccharides -- 12.4 Formation of Interpolymer Complexes of BCPs with Mucin Glycoprotein -- 12.5 Interaction of BCPs with Animal Cells -- 12.5.1 Effects of BCPs on Cell Agglutination and Cell Adhesion -- 12.5.2 Uptake of Water-Soluble BCPs and their Polyplexes with DNA by Animal Cells -- 12.5.3 Adhesion of Animal Cells to the Surfaces Modified with BCPs -- 12.6 Polymeric Mucoadhesive Materials and Devices Employing Boronate - Carbohydrate Interactions -- 12.6.1 Occlusion of Mucosal Lumen by Boronate-Containing Gels -- 12.6.2 BCP-Based Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery -- 12.6.3 Contact Lenses with Mucin Affinity -- 12.7 Conclusions -- References -- 13 Liposome-Based Mucoadhesive Formulations -- 13.1 Introduction.

13.2 Oral Administration of Surface-Modified Liposomes with the Mucoadhesive Properties.