spontaneous is that it requires measurements of the entropy change for the system and the entropy change for

Entropy is a state function, so the standard entropy change for a chemical reaction (ΔS°rxn) can be

dissolves in the solvent, and the components distribute themselves randomly to form a solution. The physical

intermolecular forces, and the molecules (at the surface) escape into the gaseous state. When a liquid vaporizes

. Chargaff's rules state that in a double-stranded DNA molecule, the amount of adenine (A) is equal to the

condense directly in the solid-state, bypassing the liquid state. The formation of frost is an example of

has been adapted from Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section: 10.5 The Solid State of Matter.

State) In the case of an ionic compound, oxidation numbers are assigned based on the number of electrons

amount of heat required to change one mole of a substance from the solid state to the liquid state is the

applies to matter being heated or cooled, but not changing state. When the temperature is high enough, the

) and ΔH (a measure of heat at constant pressure) both represent changes in a state function for the

), they do not shatter and, therefore, make useful construction materials. The melting points of the